• IQINISO ELIQINILE
• Isikhathi sokuphila nendawo yokuhlala (isikhathi): cishe kuyo yonke i-Mesozoic (210 - 65,5 yezigidi zeminyaka edlule)
• Kutholakele: maphakathi ne-XVIII leminyaka., IBavaria (Germany)
• UMbuso: Izilwane
• I-Era: Mesozoic
• Uhlobo: Chordates
• Isigaba: Izilwane ezihuquzelayo
• Isikwele: I-Archosaurs Yokundiza Engapheli
• Imikhawulo: IRamforinhs nePterodactyls
• Umndeni: Pterosaur
• Uhlobo: Ama-Pterosaurs

Bangabizwa kufanele ngokuthi izingqimba ze-airpace. Impilo yabo yadlula ngesikhathi sekukhona ama-dinosaurs nama-dinosaurs asolwandle. Kunemindeni eyi-16 yama-pterosaurs, noma kunjalo, bekunzima ukuthola ngoba i-skeleton ayilondolozwanga kahle.

Kuqala ukutholakala maphakathi nekhulu le-XVIII. Zavru, ososayensi abaze banikeze igama. Kepha ngo-1809, isazi se-paleontologist nesazi sezilwane uCuvier Georges ekugcineni wakwazi ukuthola ukuthi lokhu kuyizinhlobo ezindizayo zezilwane ezihuquzelayo futhi wasinika lonke igama elidumile lama-dinosaurs.

Kunezinhlobo ezingaba ngu-60 zama-pterosaurs, ezinkulu kunazo zonke ezazingama-terrestical - ama-azhdarchids (aphakeme kakhulu afinyelela ku-8m ukuphakama, azingela amanye ama-dinosaurs) futhi ezindizayo - u-Ornithoheirus (amaphiko asuka kumamitha ayi-12 kuye kwayi-15), ayengama-repts agcwele igazi.

Ngabe udleni nokuthi iyiphi indlela yokuphila

Iningi lempilo ladlula emoyeni, kwesinye isikhathi, ezinye izinhlobo zezilwane, zazihlala phansi zibhukuda emanzini. Bahlala emaphaketheni, bangenza izindiza ezinde, bavame ukuhlela ngaphezu komhlaba nolwandle. Ama-zavras asanda kuzalwa aqandwe egobolondweni futhi ekuqaleni awahlukanga ngobukhulu obukhulu, kodwa wayesazi kakade ukuthi angandiza kanjani futhi azitholele ukudla kwawo.

Ezinkulu ikakhulukazi zidla ngezilwane zomhlaba, kepha kwesinye isikhathi, njengezincane, zazizingela izinhlanzi ezindiza ngenhla kwamanzi. Izinsikazi zazincane kunabesilisa, kanti ne-crest ekhanda nayo yayincane.

Imininingwane yesakhiwo somzimba

Indawo yesifuba yayivikelwe kahle yigobolondo lamathambo. Izinhlobo eziningi zazinezinwele emzimbeni wonke, entanyeni nasekhanda (2-4 mm), kanti ezinye zazize zibe nezicubu phakathi kweminwe nezinyawo ezibulalayo, ezazibuye zimbozwe ngoboya.

Isikhumba sasikhanyisiwe, ngakho-ke kungenzeka ukuhlala emoyeni isikhathi eside ngaphandle kwezinkinga.

Ikhanda

Izinhlobo eziningi zalawa ma-dinosaurs zazinezimpawu zomqhele emakhanda azo; zazinobukhulu obuhlukahlukene nobumo. Wasiza ukulawula indiza, wasebenza njengembonakaliso yolaka futhi wakhanga abesifazane.

Ukwakheka kwengqondo ye-saurine kufana neyezinyoni, kugcwalisa wonke umgogodla womzimba. Umuzwa wokulinganisela nomuzwa wokulinganisela wakhula kahle, futhi ukubuka ngamehlo nakho kwakuhle kakhulu, njengoba kufakazelwa yindlela yabo yokuzingela - ngokundiza balanda inyamazane yabo bayibamba ngaphandle kokungabaza.

Imihlathi, njengentamo, yayiphakeme. Ezinye izinhlobo zazingenamazinyo; zimane zagwinya inhlanzi.

Umlando Wocwaningo lwePterosaur

Ngo-1784, u-Alessandro Collini, owayesebenzisa iqoqo elikhulu lezinsalela eMannheim, wenza amarekhodi okuqala ezinsalela zama-pterosaurs, kodwa wayengazi ukuthi lokhu kutholwa yini. Ngo-1801, isazi somzimba saseFrance uGeorges Cuvier sathola ukuthi izinsalela ezitholakele kwakuyizinsalela zezinhlobo zezilwane ezihuquzelayo ezazingaziwa ngaphambili ezazingandiza. Ngo-1809 uCuvier wabiza lesi silwane ngokuthi "pterodactyl."

Ekuqaleni kwekhulu le-19, ososayensi babekholelwa ukuthi kunezinhlobo ezimbili noma ezintathu kuphela zepterosaurs. Ngalezo zinsuku, impilo yalabo abazithandayo lezi zilwane yayilula kakhulu. Kepha ngasekupheleni kwalelikhulu leminyaka, ososayensi bathola izinhlobo eziningi ezintsha futhi bahlukanisa ama-pterosaurs baba ngamaqembu amabili. Iqembu elilodwa lalinomsila omude, izintende zezandla ezimfushane, amathumbu amancanyana, ne-anterior orbital oramital foramen. Leli qembu lama-pterosaurs libizwa ngokuthi i-ramforinha.

Iqembu lesibili lifaka ama-pterosaurs anezandla ezinde, umsila omfushane namakhala, ahlanganiswe ne-anterior orbital foramen. Leli qembu labizwa nge- "pterodactyls" ngemuva kukaGeorges Cuvier. Ngokungafani nama-rumphorinchs, ama-pterodactyls ayenamakhanda ekhanda. Kepha ekuqaleni kwekhulu le-XXI, ososayensi bathola umbono wamaRamforins, nawo lawo ayenekhanda emakhanda awo.

Ososayensi badideka lapho, ngekhulu lama-21, kutholakala uhlobo lwama-pterosaurs olwalungelolawo maqembu amabili. Iningi lala pterosaurs latholakala eChina naseNgilandi. La ma-pterosaurs ayenesundu esifushane nomsila omude. Lokhu kwakujwayelekile kwama-ramforinhs. Kepha igebhezi labo lalifana nelama-pterodactyls: i-orthital orbital foramen iqondaniswe namakhala. Leli qembu lama-pterosaurs libizwa wukonopterids futhi manje ifundwa ngokuningiliziwe. Lolu hlobo lungasho okuningi mayelana nokuthi ama-pterodactyls avela kanjani kuma-ramforins.

Izindlela zokucwaninga

Ososayensi bavame ukucwaninga ngama-pterosaurs ezinhlobonhlobo zezinsalela ezigcinwa emaqoqweni wemnyuziyamu emhlabeni wonke. Amaqoqo amahle kakhulu aseYurophu, okungukuthi: eMnyuziyamu Wemlando Wezemvelo eLondon, eBavaria State Archaeological Collection eMunich, eMnyuziyamu Wombuso Wezemvelo eKarlsruhe. Kukhona nemiklamo eyikhulu eminyuziyamu eChina.

Abanye abacwaningi benza umsebenzi wasensimini ukuzama ukuthola izinhlobo ezintsha zama-pterosaurs. Le yimizamo eyingozi, ngoba amathambo ama-pterosaurs ayivelakancane, futhi kuhlala kunethuba elihle lokuthi lolu hambo luzosaphazwa. Noma kunjalo, kunezindawo ezimbalwa emhlabeni lapho ungathola khona izinsalela eziningi zepterosaurs. Kepha amathambo agcwele cishe awakaze enzeke lapho. URoland Poskl uthole cishe ama-50 skeletons ama-pterosaurs empilweni yakhe. Kepha wenza okumbumba yena eqoqweni lakhe lokugcwalisa izindala.

Ukuhlukanisa amathambo ama-pterosaurs emathanjeni ama-dinosaurs ngokuvamile kulula kakhulu. Amathambo weDinosaur ngokuvamile awasho lutho, kepha awaholi njenge-pterosaurs. Amathambo ezimpiko ze-pterosaurs mude futhi mncane, futhi kulula ukuwabona. Ngenxa yokuthi ama-pterosaurs ayehamba ezindizayo, amathambo abo ahlukile kakhulu emthanjeni wezinye izilwane.

Ukuvela kwekhono lokundiza

Ama-pterosaurs okuqala avele eminyakeni engaba yizigidi ezingama-230 edlule esikhathini se-Upper Triassic esifundeni se-alpine eNyakatho ye-Italy, e-Western Austria naseSwitzerland. Uhlobo oluncane kunazo zonke lwabonakala ekugcineni kweCretaceous. Izinhlobo ezincane ze-pterosaurs zifaka i-quetzalcoatlus yaseTexas, hatsegopteryks evela eRomania, kanye ne-aramburgian evela eJordani. Zonke lezi zinhlobo zafa eminyakeni eyizigidi ezingama-66 edlule ngemuva kokuwa kwesimo sezulu esosusa ubuso bomhlaba namadayinaso amakhulu. Ngakho-ke, ama-pterosaurs ahlala emhlabeni iminyaka eyizigidi eziyi-164. Kepha kungenzeka ukuthi bangaphila isikhathi eside, ngoba ososayensi abakamtholi amadlozi ama-pterosaurs.

Ngenxa yalokhu, ukufunda ukuzivelela kwekhono lokundiza kuma-pterosaurs kube yinkinga. Ukwakheka kwamaphiko ama-pterosaurs kuhlukile ekwakhekeni kwamaphiko ezinyoni, amalulwane nezinambuzane, yize zonke lezi zinhlobo zinezici ezivamile. Manje ososayensi bazama ukuqonda ukwakheka kwamaphiko ama-pterosaurs. Izinsalela zabantu abakhulu nabancane ziye zalondolozwa. Amanye amathambo agcinwe kahle kakhulu, futhi uyakwazi ukubona ukuthi ukuhlangana ngakunye kwasebenza kanjani. Kukhona namasampula athakazelisayo avela eJalimane naseKazakhstan, agcinele izicubu ezithambile zamaphiko. Ngokusho kwalezi zampula, ama-pterosaurs ayene-membrane endizayo, eyayisuka entanyeni iye esihlakaleni, kusukela esiqeshini somunwe wesine kuya komunwe wesihlanu futhi kusukela kolunye uhlangothi kuya kwesinye. Ngasikhathi sinye, imilenze yagcinwa ihlukile, nolwelwesi lwendiza lwalulukhulu impela.

Ezinye izinhlobo zama-Cretaceous pterosaurs atholakala eBrazil nase China, kanye nezinhlobo zesikhathi seLate Jurassic, ezitholakala eJalimane, zenza ukuba bakwazi ukubona ukwakheka kwangaphakathi kolwelwesi endizayo futhi bahlole kulo izicubu ezilukhuni, imithambo yegazi nezicubu zemisipha. Yize eminye imizimba ye-pterodactyl inesakhiwo sezinsiba, azange zivele izimpaphe kulwelwesi lwendiza.

Ososayensi abatholanga zilwane eziphakathi nendawo ezixhumanisa ama-pterodactyls ezindizayo namadlozi abo angenabhanoyi. Ngakho-ke, akucaci ukuthi ama-pterosaurs awathola kanjani amaphiko. Kepha ungakwazi ukulandelela inqubo yokuqhekeka komunwe wesihlanu, ukululeka komunwe wesine, futhi ezinhlotsheni ezizolandela - ukwandiswa okuqinile kwamathambo metacarpal. Kuvele ithambo elisha le-pterygoid eduze kwesihlakala, elalilawula ngaphambili kolwelwesi endizayo. Bekubalulekile ekuthinteni. I-deltopectoral crest ehlombe isikisela ukuthi ama-pterosaurs akhombisa amaphiko awo. Kepha izinhlobo ezinkulu ngokunokwenzeka zichitha isikhathi esithe xaxa zenyuka emoyeni.

[hlela] Imininingwane evamile

Imvamisa kungokwesigaba sezilwane ezihuquzelayo, yize zaziyizilwane ezinegazi ezifudumele. Ngamahloni, ama-pterosaurs ayefana kakhulu nezinyoni, yize kwakungezona okhokho bazo, njengama-dinosaurs. Ngakho-ke, amathambo ama-pterosaurs ayengasho lutho futhi egcwele nomoya, njengamathambo wezinyoni. Njengezinyoni, ama-pterosaurs ayenethambo le-keel, lapho izicubu ezazibandakanyeka endizeni zazinamathiselwe, nobuchopho obukhule kahle, obabenza imisebenzi ehambisana nokundiza.

Baqala eminyakeni engama-228 million edlule kwiLate Triassic futhi yanyamalala ekupheleni kwenkathi yeCretaceous yesikhathi seMesozoic ngesikhathi seCretaceous - uPaleogene ukuqothula eminyakeni eyizigidi ezingama-66 edlule.

Babemakhulu impela: abantu abancane kakhulu, njengokuthi I-Nemicolopterus crypticus, yayinamaphiko angama-25 cm, izinhlobo ezinkulu kunazo zonke, I-Arambourgiania philadelphiae, Hatzegopteryx thambema futhi Quetzalcoatlus Northropi ifinyelele kumaphiko wamamitha ayi-10-13.

Ama-pterosaurs ayizilwane ezindizayo.

Izimpiko ze-pterosaurs zakhiwa ngumbungu wesikhumba nezinye izicubu. Ulwelwesi oluphambili lwalunamathele emunweni wesine osandulele wesandla futhi lwelulekwa eceleni kwezinhlangothi zomzimba kuye emaqakaleni. I-Membranes iqoqo eliyinkimbinkimbi lezakhiwo ezinamandla eziguqulwe ngendiza esebenzayo. Izimpiko ezingaphandle (kusukela esihlokweni somunwe kuya elolini) zaqiniswa ngemicu eyakhiwe eduze ebizwa ngokuthi i-actinofibrils. Ama-Actinofibrils abandakanya izingqimba ezintathu ezihlukene, ahlangana ngokuhlangana. Ukusebenza kwe-actinofibril akaziwa, njengoba kunjalo nezinto ababeqhamuka kuzo. Ngokuya ngokwakhiwa kwabo (i-keratin, izicubu zemisipha, izakhiwo ezinwebekile), bangaba ngama-thickening noma ama-ejenti aqinisayo engxenyeni yangaphandle yephiko. I-Membranes yayiqukethe ungqimba omncane wesicubu, izicubu ezinama-fibrous, nesistimu yokujikeleza okuyinkimbinkimbi.

Ulwelwesi lwamaphiko lwalunezingxenye ezintathu. Ingxenye eyinhloko yayiwukuthi i-chiropathy (“Membrane yengalo”), welula phakathi kwezingalo zangaphambili nangasemuva. I-Chiropathagy yayisekelwa i-forefinger eyodwa, ende kakhulu, evame ukubizwa ngokuthi umunwe wesine wephiko. Iminwe emithathu yokuqala, ngakolunye uhlangothi, yayincane futhi igcwele izindlawu. Ingxenye yesibili yephiko beyile ubuhlakani ("I-membrane yangaphambili"). Kwakungaphambi kwephiko, elalisuka esihlakaleni liye ehlombe, lidala “umphetho oholayo” ngenkathi indiza. Ngokusobala, le membrane yayihlanganisa iminwe emithathu yokuqala yesandla. Ingxenye yesithathu kwaba croropathagyi-crescent-ezimise phakathi kwemilenze yama-pterosaurs. Ngokusobala, i-croropatagius imane yaxhuma ama-paws futhi ayixhumekile nomsila.

Ihlukile kulezi zilwane ithambo - pteroid - yayihlotshaniswa nesihlakala futhi isize nokugcina ulwelwesi lwangaphambili (i-propatagy) phakathi kwesihlaka nehlombe.

Kwamanye ama-pterosaurs sekwephuzile, ama-vertebrae ama-thoracic amaningana ahlangana esakhiweni esibizwa ngokuthi “i-notary”, esasiza ukungezelela ukuqina kwesithambo futhi sinikeze ukusekela emahlombe.

Ama-Pterosaurs abenezinyawo ze-webbed.

Izinhlobo zokuqala zazinemihlathi emide ye-toothy kanye nomsila omude, amafomu sekwephuzile anciphise kakhulu imisila noma ukungabikho kwawo ngokuphelele, futhi abaningi babengenamazinyo.

Iningi lezigebhezi ezitholakele zinemihlathi emincane enesethi ephelele yamazinyo enaliti. Kwezinye izimo, izinsalela zomlomo we-keratin zigcinwa, yize zinamafomu anamazinyo, uqhwaku lincane, lukhawulelwe ngamathiphu emihlathini futhi aluhlanganisi amazinyo. Amanye amafomu athuthukile, ngokwesibonelo, Pteranodontidae futhi I-Azhdarchidae, zazinobuthi futhi zinemilomo emikhulu, efana nemilomo yezinyoni.

Ngokungafani nama-archosaurs amaningi, ukuvuleka kwamakhala nangaphambi kwezimpawu zesimo se-pterodactyloid yama-pterosaurs ahlanganiswe ekuvulekeni okukhulu okukodwa, okubizwa ngokuthi iwindows-preorbital (ise-antorbital fenestra), ngokusobala ukwenza ugebhezi lube lula ukundiza.

Kukholakala ukuthi ama-pterodactyl amancane nama-ramphorinch amade ahlala edonsa amaphiko awo lapho endiza, kanti ama-pterosaurs amakhulu ahamba phezulu endaweni ephakeme, esebenzisa ukusekela ukukhuphuka komoya futhi esiza indiza ngamaphiko nje angavamile amaphiko amakhulu.

Amanye ama-pterosaurs ayehlukaniswa ngemigqomo eyinkimbinkimbi, imvamisa kufaka phakathi i-keratin nezinye izakhiwo ezithambile. Ngokunokwenzeka, ikamu lelo lalisetshenziswa ama-pterosaurs hhayi ukuheha ukunakwa kwabobulili obuhlukile (ikamu lelo lalingenye yemininingwane ye-dimorphism yezocansi), kodwa futhi nokulawula indiza (lasebenza njengokuhamba komkhumbi kanye nokuqina ngesikhathi sendiza), kuphinde kwaphakanyiswa ukuthi ikamu lisebenze njengento elwa nomlomo kulo mulomo, noma noma for thermoregulation.

Kwakukhona imicu enjengezinwele ekhanda nasemzimbeni - i-pycnofiber, kufana, kepha hhayi okuzenzakalelayo ezinwele zezilwane ezincelisayo, futhi kufana nezimpaphe zepilo zedayinasi eyingozi. Ukuba khona kwama-pycnofibres kusikisela ukuthi ama-pterosaurs ayeyizilwane ezinegazi ezifudumele, ngoba i-hairline iyisishisi esisebenzayo sokushisa, futhi ukuba khona kwayo kukhuluma ngokutholwa kokuzuzwa kwe-homeothermy yeqiniso ngabakwa-pterosaurs - izinga lokushisa lomzimba elihlala lilawulwa yimishini yokusebenza komzimba. Ama-Pycnofibres awenzanga umsebenzi we-aerodynamic, kodwa avele enqubweni yokuziphendukela kwemvelo ukuze kulondolozwe i-thermoregulation.

Mhlawumbe ezinye izinhlobo zazinezimpaphe ezingafani nalutho.

Inemisipha yephiko eqinile futhi yasebenzisa le misipha ukuhamba emilenzeni emine. Kungenzeka ukuthi abakwaPterosaurs basebenzise igxuma ukukhulisa imizimba yabo emoyeni. Amandla amakhulu wezibandule ayebavumela ukuba bahambe. Lapho esemoyeni, ama-pterosaurs angafika ngesivinini esingafika ku-120 km / h futhi andize izinkulungwane zamakhilomitha.

Ama-pterosaurs ayenehlelo lesikhwama somoya kanye nephampu yamathambo elawulwa ngokucophelela, eyayinikeza ukungena kwamaphaphu okufana nokutholwa yizinyoni.

Ukuhlolwa kwe-X-ray kwemithambo yobuchopho yama-pterosaurs Rhamphorhynchus muensteri futhi Anhanguera santanae kwembula ukuba khona kwama-shreds amakhulu kuwo, okuyindawo ye-cerebellum, ehlanganisa amasiginali kusuka emalungeni, emisipheni, esikhunjeni nasezinhlungwini ezilinganayo. Ucezu lwe-pterosaur luhlala ku-7.5% wesisindo sonke seengqondo zabo, esingaphezu kwanoma iyiphi enye i-vertebrate. Isichibi sithumela izibonakaliso ezikhiqiza ukunyakaza okuncane okuzenzakalelayo kwemisipha yeso, okwenza isithombe ku-retina siqine. Mhlawumbe ama-pterosaurs ayephethe ukuhlukaniswa okukhulu ngenxa yosayizi omkhulu wephiko, okusho ukuthi ayedinga ukucubungula inani elikhulu lemininingwane yokuzwa. Isisindo esiphansi esihlukaniswe izinyoni naso singenxa yokuba khona kwengqondo enkulu, yize ngaphambili ama-pterosaurs kwakucatshangwa ukuthi ahlala endaweni eyenziwe lula noma enokuziphatha okuncane okuyinkimbinkimbi kunezinyoni, futhi ucwaningo lwamuva nje lwengwenya nokunye okuhuqayo kukhombisa ukuthi ama-zavropsids akhombisa ukwanda okuyinkimbinkimbi amamodeli wokuziphatha onobuchopho obuncane.

Ama-pterosaurs ayeyizisulu ngokuyinhloko. Izinhlobo ezinamazinyo amade zibonakala zibanjwa yizinhlanzi (kanye nama-cephalopods). Ezinye izilwane zidla izinyamazane, ngisho nama-dinosaurs, izilwane ezincelisayo kanye nama-invertebrates (izinambuzane ezinkulu, ama-mollusks kanye nama-crustaceans). Ezinye izinhlobo azidelelanga isidumbu. Amalungu omndeni I-Tapejaridae ngokusobala wadla izithelo zezitshalo. Amanye ama-pterodactyls (I-Belonochasma, I-Ctenochasma) emihlathini kuhlale kutyalwe ngokuqinile, kuze kube ngu-1000, amazinyo acwebile futhi amade abunjiwe, angasetshenziswa njengezinto zokuhlunga lapho udla eplankton. Ezinye izinhlobo kungenzeka ukuthi bezimba inhlabathi emihosheni yazo zifuna izilwane ezincane.

Ngakolunye uhlangothi, ama-dinosaurs ezidlayo futhi mhlawumbe izingwenya, ama-ichthyosaurs, ama-mosasaurs kanye nabasakazi abazingela ama-pterosaurs.Futhi, ama-pterosaurs ahlushwa amagciwane ahlukahlukene. Kungenzeka ukuthi izinyoni pterosaurs ezingelwa nomunye, futhi ukuthi pterosaurs ngokwawo ayehluleka yokuzingela pterosaurs ezincane.

Kungenzeka ukuthi amanye ama-pterosaurs akwazi ukubhukuda, njengama-waterfowl anamuhla. Ngakho wena UJeolopterus, Efana Waterfowl yesimanje, kwakukhona ulwelwesi phakathi kwezinzwane imilenze yangemuva. Ama-pterosaurs adla izinhlanzi ngokusobala ayengahlala phezu kwamanzi abhukuda kuwo, ekhipha imilenze yawo yangasemva, njengamadada. Ikakhulu, kutholakale imisindo eshiywe yi-pterosaurs ezintantayo emanzini angajulile.

Ikakhulu, i-pterosaur Tapapejara wellnhoferi wayenamathambo angajwayelekile (umzimba ofana nomzimba wamalulwane, ithambo elikhulu elixakayo likhala ekhanda) elamsiza ukubhukuda emanzini. Ucwaningo lwe-aero- ne-hydrodynamics yamaphiko lubonise lokho T. kahlenhoferi, Efana a transformer, kabusha umzimba wakhe (cishe, kanje isibankwa flying) ukuntanta phezu kwamanzi, sengathi ngaphansi useyili. Ngakho-ke, cishe wayezifunela ukudla. Endabeni yezilwane ezihlaselayo ezingaphansi kwamanzi T. kahlenhoferi zingahlangana ngokushesha suka nesikhumba. Lapho splashed T. kahlenhoferi cwilisa i-sternum emanzini, kwakheka i-analogue yesikejana somkhumbi, imilenze yangemuva ezinhlangothini yasebenza ngokungathi yizihlakala ezengeziwe. Umphumela waba trimaran, futhi contact sakugcina ngamanzi kwenza ukuba stably ukundiza nezinye izingcweti eduze kwamanzi futhi athole isivinini ehloniphekile. Ukuhamba phambili kwe-pterosaur kwenziwa ngenxa yamaphiko amade namancanyana, abamba iqhaza lamaski amabili ngamaseyili, kanti inkundla eyaziwayo ye-cranial eyayihamba phambili kwakuyi-jib, ikuvumela ukuthi ushintshe indlela ohamba ngayo. Ikamu lisebenzela ukubhukuda, yize ngasikhathi sinye lingasetshenziswa ukuheha abobulili obuhlukile.

Ama-pterosaurs abeka amaqanda awo. Ezinye izinhlobo zawo wahlala emakoloni ezinkulu, olufana "izimakethe inyoni" ka-gannet kanye amakoloni Izimfudu zasolwandle. Ososayensi bathole imibono yokuthi ama-pterosaurs angakwazi ukukhulisa amaphuphu ndawonye. Ucwaningo ngezinsalela zemibungu lukhombisa ukuthi imidlwane yama-pterosaurs yayingasizakali futhi ayikwazi ukuzondla futhi izinakekela, ngakho-ke ngaphambi kokuba ikhule, abazali bayo kwakufanele bayinakekele. Besebenzisa i-compact tomography, ososayensi bathola ukuthi isidleke esithuthukisiwe kakhulu sasineminyaka emibili ubudala, kepha ukukhula kwakhe eqandeni lokufa kwakusenzeka namanje. Lokhu kusho ukuthi pterosaurs omdala eside kakhulu achanyuselwa amaqanda abo.

Ama-pterosaurs ahlukaniswe ama-sub-chungechunge amabili (kuchazwa izinhlobo ezingaphezu kuka-200):

Ukuqothulwa ekugcineni kweCretaceous ngenxa yokuwela komhlaba we-asteroid / asteroid (ama-craters Chiksulub namaShiva amakhulu ngosayizi)

I-10 km (noma ngaphezulu) cishe eminyakeni eyizigidi ezingama-65 edlule, kanye nomncintiswano ovela kwizinyoni futhi, mhlawumbe, ezinye izinto ezingezinhle (umsebenzi wentaba-mlilo / izicupho ze-Deccan /, okungenzeka ukuthi zicasulwe yimithelela ye-asteroid / asteroid).

Oda Winged Izibankwa noma Pterosaurs (Pterosauria)

"Ama-dinosaurs ezinamaphiko." Lawa ama-vertebrates okuqala futhi okuwukuphela kwento ephilayo eye yathusa imvelo yomoya. Kwakuyizilwane ezindizayo zangempela ezikwazi ukundiza okusebenzayo.

Leli qembu has izibopho zomkhaya nge izibankwakazi nawoyise. Umsuka awucaci, kungenzeka ukuthi wavela kusuka ezihubhaneni ezincane, ezifana nezidlakudla ezihlala ezihlahleni noma emadwaleni ahlobene ILagosuchus futhi I-Scleromochlus. kungazelelwe Bavele ekupheleni Triassic, babalelwa ezigidini ezingu 225-230 edlule. Ukutholwa kokuqala kwaziwa kusuka eLate Triassic yaseNyakatho Italy, eGermany naseGreenland. Lokhu bekuvele kukhule ngokuphelele ama-rumphorinhoids ngesithambo esishintshiwe sendiza. Nguwo unyaka owodwa njengama-dinosaurs amadala kakhulu owaziwa kakhulu ezincelisayo. Kakade ukusabalala Jurassic emhlabeni wonke. Ukuqothulwa ekugcineni kweCretaceous. Bangaba yiqembu lodade kumaDinosauriformes ngaphakathi kwe-Ornithodira, kepha bangaba ngama-archosaurifances bakudala.

Yize ama-pterosaurs egcina iningi lokhokho bawo be-pro-cerciform, imizimba yabo yashintshwa kancono ngokugibela izihlahla nokundiza. Kamuva, ezinye ukulungiswa wadala zinhlobo ehlukile. Ama-pterosaurs abusa isibhakabhaka iningi lama-Mesozoic, kepha awazange asinde ekuqothulweni kweLate Cretaceous.

Imvamisa babeba nogebhezi olude olunamazinyo abukhali, intamo ende, umzimba omfishane, izitho ezinde namaphiko we-membrane. Imihlathi yayeluliwe, ezinye (iJurassic) zazinamazinyo, ezinye (iLate Cretaceous) zazinomlomo wenyathi. Emincane kakhulu ibilingana undlunkulu, elikhulu kunawo wonke safinyelela ubukhulu indiza. Ezinye zimbozwe ngemicu efana noboya.

Izinhlobo ezingaphezu kuka-130 zichaziwe, kepha cishe zingama-30 kuphela ezaziwa ngezinsalela eziphelele. Izinhlobo eziningi zazinamaphiko angaphansi kwemitha eyodwa futhi zazilingana nejuba noma iqhude. amafomu Okukhulu uvele ngaphambi Cretaceous, 3-4 m namaphiko, kanti Late imidondoshiya Cretaceous safinyelela 10 m.

Ama-pterosaurs we-Triassic ayizidalwa zakudala nezokuqala kunazo zonke. Zingakhonjwa kaningi ngamazinyo azo, ezingaba namathiphu angaphezu kweyodwa. Kamuva ama-pterosaurs abenamazinyo amade, anombala omude okweqanda. Iningi namazinyo pterosaurs iyashelela, okusaqanda esigabeni cross, emikhulu bengekho. Zivame ukunamathisela ngokulinganayo esihlangwini futhi zingasho ngqo noma zigobile kancane. Ezinye izinhlobo zefossil zibonisa ukufana kwamazinyo e-pterosaur, ikakhulukazi ezinye izingwenya ezincane. Amathambo ama-passosaurs e-Triassic akhulu kunezinhlobo zakamuva; abonisa izindonga ezikhudlwana nokuvuleka okuncane kwe-pneumatic.

Isikhathi Jurassic kwaba nesikhathi lapho izibankwa flying kwavele abalulekile ukuziphendukela kwemvelo. Baye bahlala ezindaweni eziningi ezinhle nezindawo zokuhlala emhlabeni jikelele. AmaJurassic pterosaurs (ama-rhamphorhinhoids) ajwayele ukuba namazinyo amade kakhulu nengxenye ebushelelezi okugogekile nesigqoko esikhethekile se-enamel esicutshini sezinyo. Ezinye izinhlobo zibonisa amabala amancane namancanyana kanye nobude bezinyo, kepha iningi lawo lisenamazinyo abushelelezi. Ezinye pterosaurs kamuva Jurassic (pterodactyloids) ziqala ukubonisa izinyo ukusikwa futhi ukwanda ubude amathambo ibhulashi iphiko.

Eshokeni, izidalwa eziningi zafinyelela osayizi abakhulu, mhlawumbe ngenxa yokuqukethwe komoya ophefumulayo osesikhathini ngaleso sikhathi. Ama-pterosaurs awafani nhlobo futhi izinhlobo ezinkulu kunazo zonke zaziphawulwa ngalesi sikhathi. Izinhlobo eziningi zakamuva zazidlangile emhlabeni wonke futhi zazivame ukuba zinkulu kakhulu. Kwakukhona eziningana zezinto eziphilayo ezincane, kodwa mancane kakhulu kunalawo e Jurassic. Lokhu mhlawumbe kungenxa yokuncintisana kwama-pterosaurs amancane nezinyoni, eziye zaba ziningi ngokwengeziwe kwishokho.

Ama-pterosaurs ayengabashayeli bezindiza bangempela, enamaphiko ayekwazi ukudala ukudonsa nokuphakamisa. Zazinezinduna ezinkulu zamaphiko - ulwelwesi ezindizayo. The main usekelo ulwelwesi flying ebusweni kwaba forelimbs side kakhulu. Iminwe emithathu yokuqala yayinesakhiwo nobukhulu obujwayelekile, owesihlanu wayengekho, owesine wafinyelela kubude obungavamile futhi ulwelwesi oluncane lwelulwa phakathi kwakhe nezinhlangothi zomzimba. Unqenqema olungaphakathi lwesikhumba lwalunamathele ngqo emzimbeni. Njengoba isikhule ngokweqile, umunwe wesine wabala ngaphezu kwamaphesenti angama-60 ubude bayo yonke imaphambili. Iminwe abasala mfushane futhi mhlawumbe esasisetshenziselwa ubambe isilwane amagatsha esihlahla noma phezu kwamadwala.

I-membrane ngokwayo yaqiniswa ungqimba lwentambo eziningi ezilinganayo, ezisondelene ngokusondelene, ezingaphansi kuka-0,5 mm ubukhulu, kepha zafika ku-100 mm ubude, ezibizwa nge-actinofibrils. Le micu yanika ukuqina kwephiko futhi yagcina ukwakheka kwayo, yanciphisa inani lokuxakaxaka okufanele izitho zomzimba zisebenze kulolwelwesi ukuze zihlale ziqinile. Lokhu kuqinise iphiko futhi kuvikele ukuthi lingaphuli, kunciphise ukulimala. Actinofibrils Sisuka izikali.

I-Propatagium yenziwa endaweni engaphambili kwembali futhi yayingaphakanyiswa noma yehliswe yi-pteroid, ehlukile eqenjini ngethambo. Kwakuqondiswa kusuka esihlakaleni septerosaur kuya ehlombe lakhe, kusekela ingxenye yolwelwesi lwamaphiko. Ukuvela kwesakhiwo esisha okunjalo akuvamile kakhulu phakathi kwama-vertebrates, ukuvela kwemvelo kuvame ukusebenzisa izakhiwo ezindala, kuzivumelanise nemisebenzi emisha.

The main iphiko ulwelwesi (cheiropatagium) isananyathiselwe emaphethelweni ezingemuva forelimb, ohlangothini umzimba, futhi emaphethelweni elingaphandle nemilenze yangemuva ukuze iqakala. Ama-pterosaurs futhi ayenenye i-membrane (i-cruropatagium noma i-uropatagium) enwebeka phakathi kwezingalo ezisemuva futhi isekelwa futhi ilawulwa yinzwane yesihlanu.

I-cheyropathagium inikeze kakhulu ukuphakanyiswa nokuthambisa ngenkathi indiza. I-propatagium kanye ne-cruropatagium kungenzeka ukuthi yayisetshenziswa ngokuyinhloko njengezindawo zokulawula ukuhamba ngenkathi indiza, ukulawula ijubane, noma ukuvumela indiza ehamba kancane ngesikhathi sokuthatha uhambo noma ukufika. Okunye ezakhiwa, njengomkhumbi iminwe encane clawed ezandleni, crests ku ugebhezi, nezinyawo, kungenzeka nokuthi iye esetshenziswa njengoba isilawuli evele. URamforinchoid nabanye abanye nabo babene-loud caudal.

Akukaziwa ukuthi ulwelwesi lwamaphiko lwalunamathele ethangeni noma emilenzeni, lwashiya imilenze ikhululekile futhi ikwazi ukuhamba phansi. Uma ulwelwesi lunamathele emilenzeni, khona-ke umsuka wokundiza kwama-pterosaurs kusuka ekudonsa umoya kungenzeka. Amaphiko baqiniswa imisipha esikhulu basuka sternum futhi ohlanganiswe amaqhubu enkulu elingenhla ingalo ithambo (humerus). Umklamo wokuhlangana kwehlombe uvumele iphiko ukuba lihlehle liye phezulu, ligijikele, futhi futhi liphendukele emuva naphambili. Ama-pterosaurs ayengasakwazi ukuhamba endizeni kunezinyoni.

Ama-pterosaurs amancane naphakathi nendawo asetshenziselwa ikakhulukazi ukundiza okushaywayo, kwesinye isikhathi abaphendukela ekudonsa ngezindiza, amafomu amakhulu abuyele ezindizeni ezindiza ngesikhathi sokuhamba nokufika, kepha akhuphukele ekushiseni futhi enyuka emisakazweni yomoya isikhathi esiningi sokugcina amandla. Pterosaurs sasinamaphiko elikhulu kuqhathaniswa isisindo somzimba wabo kanye Kanjalo sakwazi ukuthola fly kuqhathaniswa kancane. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukwakheka okuyinkimbinkimbi kwemishini yokundiza ehlanganisa imilenze yangaphambili nangemuva, kufaka phakathi izinhlaka zokulawula ezahlukahlukene, kusikisela ukuthi nazo beziqondakala kakhulu.

Ngaphezu kwamaphiko, ama-pterosaurs abonisa okunye ukuzivumelanisa nendlela yokuphila ezindizayo. Ubuchopho babo babukhulu futhi bunjengobenyoni - ukundiza kudinga amasistimu okulawula okuyinkimbinkimbi. Kodwa, nakuba inhlangano jikelele kwemizwa sifana inyoni, pterosaurs kwakusadingeka kancane sengqondo ikhono isihlobo ukuba isisindo nomzimba ngaphezu izinyoni. Ama-Pterosaurs ayenobuchopho obukhulu obune-lobes eyenziwe kahle eyakhiwe, kepha i-olildory engakhiqizi.

Okunye ukuguqulwa okuhlose ukunciphisa isisindo somzimba kufaka phakathi ukuncishiswa okwedlulele kogqinsi lodonga lwamathambo kanye nokuqina kwamaphaphu kwamathambo amaningi nama-vertebrae. Amathambo ezimpiko zama-pterosaurs ngokuvamile awasho lutho, njengasezinyoni, futhi abiyelwe ngothayela abancane. Phakathi nokuphila, amathambo babe icwecwe kakhulu futhi equkethwe emoyeni voids lula isakhiwo. Zaziqukethe amashubhu angenalutho anezingqimba eziqinile ezingaphandle eziqinile nesigaba sesiphambano esinama-oval noma esingunxantathu. Abukho ubufakazi obuqondile besithebe somoya, kepha ubunjalo bamathambo bufakazela ukuthi babekhona. Amathambo amakhulu amaphiko ayevame ukuba nezakhiwo ezincane zokubopha, ikakhulukazi emaphethelweni amathambo.

Kwakungumsebenzi umzimba esifushane, sinciphise tho femurs ngokulingana Yekhanda esikhulu kakhulu (kufika ku-50% ubude umzimba), a sternum ububanzi kwakhiwa kusukela clavicles axhunyiwe. Ingaphandle elingaphandle ku-sternum (cristospine) lalingusebenza njengengqimba yezinyoni. Ukutholwa kwe-sternum kune-keel enemigqa yokunamathiselwa kwemisipha eqinile.

Ikholomu ye-vertebral yama-pterosaurs ihluke kakhulu. Ngezindlela eziningi, kufana izinyoni nge eqinile kakhulu ehlombe ngebhande esifundeni okhalo. Kukhona ama-vertebrae womgogodla ambalwa ngokunyakaza okulinganiselwe.

Amaphayiphu amaningi akhethekile angama-vertebrae wesibeletho. Mikhulu ngokuqhathaniswa namanye ama-vertebrae. I Atlas futhi Axis ngokuvamile coalesce ku nelilodwa ithambo, nokubala Atlas futhi Axis amabili, kukhona ngokuvamile 8 amathambo wesibeletho pterosaurs ekuseni, nokuncipha-6 pterosaurs kamuva futhi emikhulu. Ama-occipital vertebrae anengqimba engaphandle ethambile yethambo eliqinile nengxenye ephakathi yethambo le-spongy ne-pneumatic voids (izimbobo zomoya). Azikho izimbambo zomlomo wesibeletho. Ubungako balezi zilwane kuxhomekeka ezinhlobonhlobo.

pterosaurs Amancane. Ama-vertebrae wesibeletho ama-pterosaurs amancane, afana ne-ramforinha ne-pterodactyl, ajwayelekile ezinhlotsheni eziningi. Ngogebhezi lwayo oluqinile, i-ramforinch idinga i-vertebrae enamandla e-occipital. I-Pterodactyl vertebrae yinde futhi iyathambile.

pterosaurs elikhulu. IPteranodon iyi-pterosaur enkulu enama-vertebrae axutshwe ngokuphelele we-Atlanta-axis exhuma kugebhezi. I-vertebrae yomlomo wesibeletho kule zinhlobo imbozwe ngethambo elincanyana kakhulu le-periosteum (ungqimba lwethambo elilukhuni) kanye nobubanzi bethambo elikhanseliwe. Kukhona izikhala zomoya emathanjeni futhi umgodi we-pneumatic ubonakale enkabeni yendawo ye-vertebra. Cishe wonke amathambo yomgogodla ka pteranodon bagcwala umoya.

Ama-Ornithosaurs ayiyiqembu elihluke ngokuphelele futhi ama-vertebrae asesibelethweni ahlukile ezinhlotsheni ezihlukile. Ngokubanzi, zazicashe kakhulu futhi zibanzi futhi zazinokuvuleka okukhulu kwezifo zomoya. Kukhona nama-pterosaurs amaningi ane-vertebrae yesibeletho ende kakhulu. izibonelo Abaningi bazizwa njengodade azdarkides I-Azhdarcho, I-Quetzalcoatlus futhi I-Arambourginiana. zezinhlobo ezinjalo ivelakancane.

I-trunk vertebrae. Kungahle kube khona okungenani eziyishumi nambili kwezinye izinhlobo, kodwa kuvame okumbalwa. I-vertebrae yokuqala eyisibalo esivame ukuhlangana ihlangana ukuze yakhe isakhiwo esiqinile sokucaciswa nge-scapula. Olunye uhlobo, akha notarium, ubambo bone edabula 6 noma 8 izinqubo vertebral. Ngama-pterosaurs amakhulu, i-vertebrae ye-thoracic nayo yahlunga, yakha isakhiwo esibizwa ngokuthi i-notarium.

I-vertebrae yomgogodla. Inani elincane, cishe i-6, lifushane kodwa liqinile. Lezi amathambo futhi womoya futhi ngokuvamile zibonisa ukuvuleka womoya omkhulu (for ukudlula umoya ongena kulo ithambo) ohlangothini ngalunye. Ezimweni eziningi, i-dateal vertebrae inganamathisela izimbambo ezimfushane eziphansi.

I-Sacral vertebrae. Imvamisa ifakwa ku-solid solid mass futhi ihlanganiswe ngokuqinile namathambo e-pelvis. Ukuze rhamphorinchoid, lesi sakhiwo oluphakeme evulekile, kodwa zinhlobo kamuva kuba isakhiwo avaliwe. Imvamisa kusuka ku-6 kuye ku-8 vertebrae ku-sacrum. I-pelvic vertebrae ihlanganiswe namathambo e-pelvic, yakha ukwakheka kokuthola i-shock (i-synsacrum), okudingekayo ukuze isilwane siwele emhlabeni.

I-Caudal vertebrae. Zonke pterosaurs khona, kodwa pterodactyloids babe ezimbalwa kakhulu. I-caudal vertebrae ye-ramforinha ingafaka ama-vertebrae angaphezu kwama-35 futhi ngalinye linemigoqo eqinisa amathambo amabili eqhubeka.

Abanye abacwaningi basikisela ukuthi babehamba emhlabathini ngemilenze emibili, kepha ubufakazi obuningi bukhombisa indlela yokuhamba enemilenze emine (ecishe ifane nama-gorilla). Kuma-pterosaurs, iTarsus yangaphandle - umgwaqo waphakathi nowesine wangaphandle nge-tarsus yesithathu yangaphandle - yinto ebaluleke kakhulu. I amathe ezinyawo waba izikali ezincane kodwa obukhulu ukuthi ivikelwe phansi imilenze.

Izinhlobo zokuqala zazinamaphiko amafushane, ezazidinga ukuhanjiswa njalo kwendiza, amafomu akamuva abe nezimpiko ezinde eziwavumela ukuba andize emoyeni ngomzamo omncane. Izimpiko zagoqwa lapho zinamathela esihlahleni. Ama-pterosaurs kwadingeka ame aqine njengoba ayelulele amaphiko awo ukuba asuke emhlabathini. Ngo pterodactyls ngasekupheleni, lezwaneni yesihlanu baba eziphindaphindekayo ziphenduka ezisalayo.

Iningi lamathambo atholakala emimangweni yolwandle nasechibeni, kusikisela ukuthi ama-pterosaurs kwakuyizilwane zasogwini. Iningi lama-pterosaurs lalingabadli abadla izinhlanzi, amanye ayengavikeleki.Akunabufakazi bokuthi ama-pterosaurs ayengama-oviparous, ngoba ukutholakala okuthembekile kwamaqanda noma izidleke zama-pterosaurs akwaziwa. (Ngokusho kweminye imibiko, iqanda lokuqala elitholwe ngele-anurognathid, iqanda lesibili laseChinese lingelama-ornithocheid, asalokhu enezici ezithile ze-cycloramphid). Kwakuneminyaka engaba yizigidi ezingama-160 - kusukela ekugcineni kwe-Triassic kuze kube sekupheleni kweCretaceous, esethole ukuchuma ekugcineni kweJurassic. Kutholakala kuwo wonke amazwekazi, kubandakanya i-Antarctica.

Ngokuxilonga, ama-pterosaurs angama-uropathagiata anezici ezithuthukisiwe ezilandelayo:

• • ukulinganisa kukhulu
• • othintana naye ngaphambi kwesikhathi, okungafaki umhlathi ongaphezulu emngceleni wokuvulwa kwangaphakathi kwempumulo
• • ukuphuma kwesithambo kwethambo eliphakeme lamathambo lapho lihlangana namathambo angaphambili
• • i-preorbital orifice ikhulisiwe kakhulu
• • amazinyo asemthanjeni okhuphukayo kanye nomabili phakathi komhlathi ongenisiwe owandisiwe
• • Amathambo e-palatine akha umphetho wangaphambili wokuvuleka kwangaphakathi kwamakhala
• • kukhona ukuvuleka phakathi kwe-pterygoid kanye ne-basephenoid (i-interterigoid void)
• • i-humerus icishe ilingane ngobude ethangeni
• • Izihlakala ezimbili eziseduzane nesiza sokunamathiselwa zifakwa kubantu abadala ukuze zakhe ukuvumelanisa.
• • Izintambo ezintathu kwezihlakala ezine zangaphandle fuse kubantu abadala, zenze i-syncarpal yangaphandle.
• • I-phalanx ye-penultimate yeminwe I - III eyeluliwe
• • Umunwe wesine uqukethe ama-phalanges amade kakhulu futhi anamandla, lapho kungekho hlali. Amalunga we-interphalangeal avumela ukunyakaza okuncane.

I-Laopteryx priscum. I-Laopteryx. "Iphiko elikhethiwe lobudala obuthandekayo." I-Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian - Tithonian), e-USA (Wyoming). Okukhulu kune-heron eluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka. Isigaxa esinqunyiwe ekuqaleni sasifanelekile njengenyoni. Kwatholakala ingemuva lesigaxa kanye nezinyo kuphela elatholakala eduzane, okungaba ngesinye isilwane. Izinsalela zihlukaniswe kakhulu ukuchaza umndeni.

Umlando wokutadisha

I-Pterodactylus (Collini, 1784)

Ucwaningo lwesayensi lwama-pterosaurs luqale ngonyaka we-1784, lapho isazi semvelo uCosimo Alessandro Collini ashicilele incazelo yesikhumba semfuyo engajwayelekile enezimpande ezinde, ngasinye sazo esasinomunwe ophakeme, esatholakala emafakethini amdaka eSolnhofen, eJalimane. Uvumile ukuthi lo mnwe omude ungasekela ulwelwesi olufana nephiko le-bat, kepha kusukela kutholakale isidalwa esingaziwa ezindaweni zokulwa zasolwandle, waphetha ngokuthi lezi zandla ezingaziwa zazisetshenziswa njengezicucu. Ekuqaleni kwekhulu le-19, lesi sidalwa safundwa yisazi somzimba saseFrance uGeorges Cuvier, owathola ukuthi lokhu okugcwele komhlaba kungokwesilwane esidliwayo, futhi “amafliphu” awo ayengamaphiko. Ngo-1809 waqamba lesi sidalwa I-Ptero-dactyle ("Iphiko leminwe"). Ukusuka kulo mzuzu, izinsalela zawo wonke ama-pterosaurs atholakala abizwa ngokuthi ama-pterodactyls, kwathi ngo-1834 kuphela lapho isazi semvelo saseJalimane uJohann Jacob Kaup sanikeza igama ukutholakala okusha kwezidalwa ezindizayo - "I-Pterosauria"(Ama-Pterosaurs).

EGreat Britain ngasekupheleni kwekhulu le-18, emaJurassic deposits of Stonefield (Oxfordshire), amathambo ama-pterosaurs nawo atholakala, kepha ayethathwa njengamathambo ezinyoni futhi ikakhulukazi abenganakwa. Izidumbu ezintsha zatholakala nguGideon Mantel ekuqaleni kwekhulu le-19, kodwa uCuvier wezemvelo wabuye wazithatha njengemithambo yezinyoni. Leli phuzu lokubukwa kwezazi ze-paleontologists ekuqaleni kwekhulu le-XIX, kufaka phakathi uWilliam Buckland noGideon Mantell, kwaholela eqinisweni lokuthi izinsalela zama-pterosaurs amashumi ambalwa eminyaka zahlala zingaziwa engxenyeni yeBrithani Jurassic neCretaceous.

Ukwakhiwa kabusha kweDimorphodon, ngo-1864

Lokhu kubambezele ukukhonjwa kwama-pterosaurs kuze kube sekupheleni kweminyaka yama-1820, lapho uWilliam Buckland echaza uhlobo “I-Pterodactylus macronyx"(Dimorphodon). Ngisho nangemva kwalolu suku, amathambo amaningi aqhekekile kodwa amakhulu ama-pterosaurs akhonjwa ngephutha njengezimbali, yize kungekho bufakazi obukholisayo bokuthi kukhona izinyoni zeMesozoic kuze kube kutholakala i-Archeopteryx ngawo-1860s. Izidumbu zama-pterosaurs amakhulu atholakala okokuqala e-UK iminyaka engama-20 ngaphambi kokuchazwa kwe-pteranodon (Pteranodon), kusuka kuma-Cretaceous deposits wase Kansas. Kodwa-ke, izinto zaseBrithani zazihlukaniswe kakhulu (i-ornithoheir) kangangokuba zacishe zangabhekwa futhi zagqitshwa kalula yilokho okuhlaba umxhwele,

Ukwakhiwa kabusha kweRamphorhynchus (Marsh, 1882)

amathambo acishe abe aphelele we-pteranodon atholakala ngu-Otniel Marsh ngeminyaka yo-1870s. Ngo-1882, uCharles Marsh wachaza lo mfanekiso wokuqala we-pterosaur ngesitho sokufakwayo sephiko, asibiza ngokuthi "Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus"(ramforinh) .Isiqobelo esitholakele esiqeshini se-lithographic Zolnhofen sigcine indawo ebekwe kahle kulondolozo lwamaphiko esilwane, kanye nokuqina okwenziwe ngamadayimane ekugcineni komsila. UMarsh wayekholelwa ukuthi le" fin "iqondiswe ngokuthe nkqo ngoba yayincane isymmetric futhi isetshenziselwa ukuthuthukisa maneuverability lapho ukundiza.

Ama-pterosaurs amakhulu

Ukwakhiwa kabusha kwe-pteranodon (Marsh, 1884)

Kuze kube ngu-1870, ama-pterosaurs amakhulu kunawo wonke ayaziwa ngezingcezwana ezimbalwa ezivela kuma-Cretaceous deposits eningizimu yeNgilandi futhi ayenamaphiko amakhulu wamamitha ama-3, ngokuqhathaniswa nesilinganiso sezinyoni ezinkulu kakhulu zanamuhla, njenge-albatross ne-voul. Umlando weminyaka engu-140 wama-pterosaurs amakhulu, ubonakala kusukela ekutholakaleni kokuqala okwaziwayo kwabo bonke abasebenza ngama-pterosaurs abakhulu - uPteranodon (Pteranodon): okokuqala, uCharles Marsh wamemezela ukutholakala kwesilwane esinamaphiko amamitha ayi-6.6, kamuva ukutholwa okuvunyelwe ukuthola izinto ezivela kusampula ebhekwe kumamitha ayi-7.6. I-Pteranodon ingesinye sezidalwa ezaziwa kakhulu futhi esidume kakhulu se-Mesozoic ngemuva kweTyrannosaurus rex, ithatha indawo ezinzile emehlweni omphakathi njenge-archetypal pterodactyl. Ukutholwa kwe-pteranodon kwagcotshwa ukutholwa kwangaphambilini kwama-pterosaurs amancane e-English Cretaceous, wayengowokuqala wabaphethi abakhulu owaziwa ngesayensi ngamaphethini amaningi, hhayi ngezicucu ezincane, futhi waba ngumuntu okholwayo njengomunye wezinto ezihamba phambili “ezihamba phambili” ku-Arthur UConan Doyle (1922) noJurassic Park nguMichael Crichton - I-Cearadactylus kwinoveli no Pteranodon kwifilimu.

Emashumini eminyaka okuqala ekhulu lama-20 leminyaka, azikho izidumbu zama-pterosaurs amakhulu kune-pteranodon atholakala. Ukuqoshwa kukaMashi kwe-pterosaur yaseMelika, okuyisilwane esikhulu kunazo zonke ezindizayo esaziwa ngaphezu kweminyaka engama-80, kwaqinisekiswa ithambo elatholakala lichazwa yiC.A. Arambourg ngo-1954. Leli thambo elingamamitha (500 mm), elivela ekubekweni okwenziwe yiC Corpace esikhathini seCretaceous of Jordan, lalihunyushwa njengethambo lephiko elinamaphiko wamamitha ayi-7, elilingana nephiko le-pteranodon. Ngemuva kweminyaka emihlanu, le sampula yathola igama lesayensi. I-Titanopteryx philidelphiae (I-Arambourg 1959) - "iphiko le-titanic."

Ngeminyaka yo-1970 kwatholakala izingcezu ezintsha ze-pterosaur enkulu, okwanikeza imibono emisha ethokozisayo mayelana nosayizi we-pterosaur omkhulu. I-humerus ende ende engama-544 mm nezinye izinto zephiko elikhulu laseTexas zachazwa nguDouglas Lawson ngo-1972, okukhombisa ubukhona be-pterosaurs enamaphiko amakhulu kunamamitha ayi-7. Ngo-1975, isiqhwaga esisha sabizwa ngokuthi iQuetzalcoatl (I-Quetzalcoatlus), i-humerus yalesi siqhwaga yayiphindwe kabili kukhulu kune-humerus enkulu kakhulu ye-pteranodon, okubonisa ukuthi le pterosaur yayinamaphiko angamamitha ayi-15. Ngawo lowo nyaka, uDouglas A. Lawson, efunda izinsalela ze-quetzalcoatl, wafinyelela esiphethweni sokuthi i-Aramburg artifact kwakungelona ithambo lephiko, kodwa i-vertebra yomlomo wesibeletho. Intamo ende kaQuetzalcoatl ivuse isasasa elikhulu, licishe lilingane nobukhulu balo obukhulu. I-subte craindraal vertebrae emide eyindilinga, ende kunazo zonke ubude bayo bungama-8, ekhonjwa njenge-vertebrae yomlomo wesibeletho, inikeze isici esiyingqayizivele sokuhlonza kweQuetzalcoatl okuthembekile. Isilinganiso sobukhulu be-quetzalcoatl sabuyekezwa nguVan Langston ngonyaka we-1981. Lokhu kubuyekezwa kutholile ukuthi umthambo wepterosaur oyimitha eyishumi nanhlanu ngokuqinisekile uhlupheka ngokweqile ngokweqile ngesikhathi sokundiza. URobert Bakker (1986) wathi kuncane okwaziwayo mayelana nokuhlangana kwe-quetzalcoatl ukulinganisa ngokuthembekile amaphiko; u-Becker wathi ukulinganisa okungenhla kwamaphiko wamamitha ayi-15 kufanele kwamukelwe kuze kutholakale ubufakazi bokuthi kukhona okuphambene nalokho. Kodwa-ke, ukutholwa kwakamuva kwamathambo kusuka kumafomu amancane, kepha ahlobene kakhulu, njengokuthi I-Zhejiangopterus (I-Cai & Wei 1994) zibonisa ukulinganiselwa kwamaphiko eQuetzalcoatl cishe ngamamitha ayi-11. Lokhu kulinganisela kukhombisa ukuthi iphiko le-quetzalcoatl lalicishe libe ngama-40% likhulu kune-pteranodon futhi ngesinye sezilwane ezinkulu ezindizayo ezaziwayo.

Ngeminyaka yama-1980s, isazi se-Paleontologist saseRussia uLevi Nesov saqanjwa kabusha I-Titanopteryx ungene kuhlobo olusha lwe-Aramburgiana (I-Arambourgiania), ukuhlonipha uK. Aramburg, owokuqala ukutadisha lokhu okutholayo okumangazayo. Ngo-1998, uDavid M. Martill neqembu labaphenyi baphinde benza olunye ucwaningo lwe-holotype oluvela eJordani. Ngokuqhathanisa i-vertebra engaphelele ye-Aramburgian neQuetzalcoatl, bafika esiphethweni sokuthi lesi silwane safinyelela amaphiko wamamitha ayi-11: 11, ngakho-ke, lesi sampula, esatholakala ekuqaleni kweminyaka yama-1940s, senza kube yi-pterosaur yokuqala enkulu eyatholakala inkulu kune-pteranodon, yize kwathatha cishe iminyaka engama-60 ukukuqonda lokhu. Ukwembiwa okwengeziwe kwaqala ukunika okusha okusha kwama-pterosaurs amakhulu aseYurophu. Ngo-1996, uMartill wabhala ngengcezwana yamaphiko etholakala ezingxenyeni ze-Isle of Wight, eningizimu yeNgilandi, kucatshangwa ukuthi inamaphiko angamamitha ayi-9. Ngo-1997, u-Eric Buffett wabika nge-ajarheid yomlomo wesibeletho evela e-Maastrichtian deposits yase-French Pyrenees, eyabonisa isilwane esinobukhulu obufanayo. Ngo-2001, kwabikwa i-azhdarchide enkulu evela enhlekeleleni yaseValencia, eSpain, enamaphiko asemuva angaba ngu-12 m.

Muva nje, sekutholwe izinsalela zepterosaur enkulu kakhulu, okubikwa ukuthi zitholakala ezindaweni ezihlaselwe yiRomania, esifundeni saseHategus saseTransylvania. Lesi siqhwaga esisha sachazwa yisazi se-paleontologist u-Eric Buffett futhi saqanjwa ngegama elithi Hatzegopteryks (Hatzegopteryx), kufaka phakathi isiqeshana sendawo yogebhezi lwe-azhdarchid enkulu, amathambo ambalwa esigaxa akhombisa ukuthi ubude bomhlathi bungafinyelela kumamitha ayi-2,5. Ezinye izingcezu zamathambo, uma ziqhathaniswa neQuetzalcoatl, zibonisa ukuthi yayinamaphiko angaba ngu-12 m. Umlando wokufunwa nokufundwa kwama-pterosaurs amakhulu awuphelile, uyaqhubeka ngokuhlelekile kwinkulungwane entsha yeminyaka, ngokuzayo, ngokuqinisekile sizothola izinto eziningi ezintsha ezimangalisayo.

Umnotho

Ngokwesiko, ama-pterosaurs ahlukaniswe izigaba ezimbili: iRhamphorhynchoidea, iqembu "labokuqala" labaphuli bama-tails abade, kanye noPterodactyloidea, ama-pterosaurs "athuthukile" amafushane. Kodwa-ke, okwamanje, lolu hlaka lwendabuko seluphelelwe isikhathi kakhulu. Okwamanje, kuthengiso lwebhayoloji, iqembu leRhamphorhynchoidea liqashelwa njengeqembu elinophawu, futhi njengoba abameli bakaPterodactyloidea bavele ngokuqondile kubo, futhi hhayi kokhokho abajwayelekile, leli qembu liphulukana nesimo "sangaphansi" futhi seliphelelwe ukusetshenziswa phakathi kososayensi abaningi.

• Umndeni wakwaDimorphodontidae (Dimorphodontidae)
• Umndeni kaRhamphorhynchidae
• Umndeni wakwaCampylognathoides (Campylognathoides)
• Umndeni Vukongopteridae (Wukongopteridae)
• I-Family Anurognathida (Anurognathidae)

• I-Family Pterodactylids (Pterodactylidae)
• Umndeni wamaJalimaneopterids (Germanyodactylidae)
• Umndeni weCtenochasmatidae (Ctenochasmatidae)
• Umndeni we-Istiodactylidae (Istiodactylidae)
• Umndeni weNyctosauridae (Nyctosauridae)
• Umndeni kaPteranodontidae (Pteranodontidae)
• I-Ornithocheirids yomndeni (i-Ornithocheiridae)
• Umndeni ka-Ayangueridae (Anhangueridae)
• Umndeni waseTapejaridae
• I-Thalassodromids yomndeni (i-Thalassodromidae)
• Umndeni wakwa Dzungaripterida (Dsungaripteridae)
• Umndeni we-Azhdarchidae (Azhdarchidae)

Indlela yokuphila ye-Pterosaur

Indawo yama-pterosaurs yayihluke kakhulu. Lokhu kunqunywe ukuhlukahluka kwezinhlobo zama-pterosaurs, ikakhulukazi ukwakheka kwentamo, ikhanda namazinyo. Amanye ama-pterosaurs ayedla imfucuza futhi kungenzeka ukuthi ayedla uhlaza, njengamaqhude anamuhla. Ezinye izinhlobo zazinamazinyo amade amise okomuntu okwenze kwalula ukudoba. Abanye badla izinambuzane, futhi kwakukhona nezinhlobo ezazidla ama-mollusks amancane. Ulwelwesi olusezinyaweni zabanye abasebenza ngokungemthetho lukhombisa ukuthi kungenzeka bakwazi ukuhlala phezu kwamanzi njengamadada. Izinsalela eziningi zama-pterosaurs atholakala emfuleni, olwandle kanye naselwandle, futhi lokhu kusikisela ukuthi abanye abantu babehlala olwandle, njengama-albatross.

Enye into eseleyo yezinsalela zama-pterosaurs ukuqubuka ekhanda (kwesinye isikhathi ngokufaka imibala), okungenzeka, kukhuluma ngezici zokukhwelana. Uma izindlela zokuzalela ama-pterosaurs behlukahluka njengalezinyoni zesimanje, ososayensi kusenokuningi okufanele bakufunde ngabo.

Siyazi ukuthi ama-pterosaurs axhumana nama-dinosaurs, kepha esikhathini esiningi ayeba ukudla kwawo. Okungenani izikhathi ezimbili, ososayensi bathole izinsalela zama-pterosaurs, emizimbeni yawo eyayinamazinyo e -ropod. Kokunye kokutholile, izinyo le-spinosaurus liqhume entanyeni ye-pterosaur. Ososayensi babuye bathola iphiko le-pterosaur elinamazinyo e-Dromaeosaurid. Kodwa-ke, abukho ubufakazi bobuhlobo obusondelene phakathi kwama-pterosaurs nama-dinosaurs.

Okungaphezu kwe-pterodactyl

Kwakunezinhlobo eziningi ezahlukene ze-pterosaurs. Izinhlobo ezincane kunazo zonke zazinentamo emifushane nephiko elingaphansi kwamamitha. Uhlobo olukhulu kunazo zonke lwalunentamo ende (ngaphezu kwamamitha amabili ubude), inhloko enkulu (futhi engaphezulu kwamamitha amabili) nephiko lamamitha ayi-9 kuye kwayi-13. Ama-pterosaurs we-Triassic neLate Jurassic ayenemisila emide, futhi ama-pterosaurs amaCretaceous ayesevele amafushane. Cishe izinhlobo ezingama-120 zama-pterosaurs ziyaziwa, futhi ngokunokwenzeka, ososayensi bazothola ezinye izinhlobo eziningi ezintsha.

Ezincwadi, kusetshenziswe amagama amabili (futhi kwesinye isikhathi ngokungalungile): ama-pterosaurs nama-pterodactyls. Igama lokuqala livela egameni I-Pterosauriaelibeka wonke ama-pterosaurs. Igama elithi "pterodactyl" livame ukusetshenziswa ngabangafundile ukuchaza wonke ama-pterosaurs, kepha kwesinye isikhathi ososayensi bayalisebenzisa ukuchaza uhlobo lwe-pterosaurs, ebonakala ngamakhala ahlanganiswe ne-anterior orbital foramen. Lokhu umgodi okhethwe yigama i-antorbital fenestra, ixhumeka emakhaleni, kwakheka isitshe esikhulu kugebhezi lwama-pterosaurs. Igama lesayensi lama-pterosaurs anesigebenga esinje Pterodactyloidea, kepha ezinye izazi zibabiza ngama-pterodactyls. Le nhlobo yayinomsila omfushane. UPterodactyls wayehlala kumaCretaceous.

Okutholakele kwakamuva

Ekhulwini lama-20, ososayensi bathola izinhlobo eziningi ezintsha zama-pterosaurs. Zingezikhathi ze-Triassic, Jurassic neCretaceous. Eminyakeni engama-20 eyedlule, izinhlobo ezimbili zama-pterosaurs zitholakele kabili kuneminyaka engama-200 edlule. Kubalulekile ukuthi phakathi kwalokhu okutholakele kukhona okwenze ukuthi kufundwe i-paleobiology kanye nemvelo yama-pterosaurs. E-Argentina nase China, ososayensi bathole ama-pterosaur amaqanda aqukethe imibungu ngaphakathi. Ngasikhathi sinye, eChina, ososayensi babuye bathola iqanda ngaphakathi kwe-pterosaur yowesifazane. Lokhu kusikisela ukuthi ama-pterosaurs ayenamaqanda aphindwe kabili.

Imibungu etholakele iye yathuthukisa amathambo afana namathambo abantu abadala. Lokhu kusikisela ukuthi ama-pterosaurs afunde ukundiza ngokushesha okukhulu ngemuva kokuzalwa. EChina naseBrazil, ososayensi bathole izindawo zokudla esidlekeni. Lokhu kusho ukuthi kungenzeka ukuthi ama-pterosaurs aqokelwe emaqenjini.

Kwenziwe ucwaningo oluningi lapho abacwaningi bezame ukubala isisindo somzimba saba-pterosaurs. Kwavela ukuthi zinzima kakhulu kunalokho obekucatshangwa ngaphambili. Ngokuthakazelisayo, izinhlobo zama-pterosaurs ezinjenge-quetzalcoatli zazinzima kakhulu kangangokuba bachitha isikhathi sabo esiningi emhlabeni. Ukuhlaziywa kwe-anatomy yobuchopho bama-pterosaurs kukhombisa ukuthi zazinkulu (ngokuqhathanisa nezinyoni) canal semicircular. Kuyaziwa futhi ukuthi ama-pterosaurs andiza enamakhanda phansi, futhi lokhu kubahlukanisa nezinyoni.

Kusenemibuzo eminingi evulekile, kepha minyaka yonke ososayensi bathola izinhlobo ezintsha zama-pterosaurs, futhi lokhu kusivumela ukuthola imininingwane eyengeziwe. Eminyakeni yamuva nje, sekuvele amasu amasha okucwaninga kwama-pterosaurs. Okuthakazelisa kakhulu kubo yi-compact tomography.Ivumela ama-paleontologists ukubona imininingwane yangaphakathi yamathambo. Amadivaysi anamandla kakhulu avumela ngisho nokucabanga ngezinsalela ezihlukanisiwe netshe. I-Tomography ingabiza, kepha imiphumela imangaza kakhulu izikhathi eziningi. Le ndlela kanye nezinye izindlela eziningi zisivumele ukuthi sihlaziye izinsalela zama-pterosaurs ososayensi abaye bawathola emakhulwini eminyaka adlule. Ikusasa locwaningo lwe-pterosaur lubukeka luqhakazile.