Iplanethi yethu siqukethe izingqimba ezintathu eziyinhloko: ukugcwala komhlaba, ingubo futhi amakhanda. Ungaqhathanisa imbulunga neqanda. Lapho-ke igobolondo leqanda liba ukuqhuma komhlaba, iqanda elimhlophe yingubo, kanti isikhuphasha sizoba ngumnyombo.
Ingxenye ephezulu yomhlaba ibizwa ngokuthi lithosphere (elihunyushwe kusuka esiGrekini ngokuthi "ibhola lamatshe"). Leli igobolondo elinzima lomhlaba, okubandakanya ukugqwala komhlaba nengxenye ephezulu yengubo.
Isakhiwo somhlaba
Umhlaba unesakhiwo esibekiwe.
Izingqimba ezintathu ezinkulu ziyahlukaniswa:
Njengoba uqhubeka ujula eMhlabeni, izinga lokushisa nomfutho kuyanda. Isikhungo somhlaba singumgogodla, umsakazo waso ungamakhilomitha ayi-3 500, futhi izinga lokushisa lingaphezulu kwama-4 500 degrees. Ingaphakathi lizungezwe yingubo, ukushuba kwayo kungamakhilomitha angama-2900. I-crust itholakala ngaphezulu kwengubo; ubukhulu bayo buhlukahluka ukusuka ku-5 km (ngaphansi kolwandle) kuya kuma-70 km (ngaphansi kwezinhlelo zezintaba). I-crust igobolondo elinzima kunazo zonke. Into yengubo isesimweni esikhethekile sepulasitiki, lo muthi ungageleza kancane ngaphansi kwengcindezi.
U-fig. 1. Isakhiwo sangaphakathi soMhlaba (Umthombo)
Ukuqhekeka komhlaba
Ukuqhekeka komhlaba - engxenyeni engenhla ye-lithosphere, igobolondo langaphandle elinzima loMhlaba.
Ukuqhekeka komhlaba kuqukethe amadwala namaminerali.
U-fig. 2. Ukwakheka komhlaba kanye nokuqhekeka komhlaba (Umthombo)
Kunezinhlobo ezimbili zokuqothuka:
1. Izwekazi (liqukethe izingqimba zedimentary, granite kanye ne-basaltic).
2. I-Oceanic (iqukethe izingqimba zedimentary kanye ne-basaltic).
U-fig. 3. Ukwakheka kokuqhekeka komhlaba (Umthombo)
Ucwaningo ngesakhiwo sangaphakathi soMhlaba
Okutholakala kakhulu ocwaningweni lwabantu yingxenye engenhla yomhlaba. Kwesinye isikhathi kwenziwa imithombo ejulile yokutadisha ukwakheka kwangaphakathi komhlaba. Umthombo ojulile - ukujula okungaphezu kuka-12 km. Basiza ekufundeni ukugcwala komhlaba kanye nezimayini. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukwakheka kwangaphakathi koMhlaba kufundwa kusetshenziswa izinsimbi ezikhethekile, izindlela, izithombe ezivela esikhaleni nesayensi: geophysics, geology, seismology.
Umsebenzi wasekhaya
1. Yini izingxenye zomhlaba?
Izinkomba
Okuyinhloko
1. Inkambo yokuqala kwiJografi: I-Textbook. kwe-6 cl. imfundo ejwayelekile. izikhungo / T.P. IGerasimova, N.P. Neklyukova. - I-10th ed., I-Stereotype. - M: Bustard, 2010 .-- 176 k.
2. Ukuma komhlaba. I-6 Cl: atlas. - 3rd ed., Stereotype. - M: Bustard, DIK, 2011 .-- 32 k.
3. I-Geography. I-6 Cl: atlas. - I-4th ed., I-Stereotype. - M: Bustard, DIK, 2013 .-- 32 k.
4. Ukuma komhlaba. 6 Cl. Cont. amakhadi. - M.: DIK, Bustard, 2012 .-- 16 k.
Ama-encyclopedia, izichazamazwi, izincwadi zokubhekisela kanye namaqoqo ezibalo
1. Ukuma komhlaba. I-Modern Illustrated Encyclopedia / A.P. IGorkin. - M: Rosman-Press, 2006 .-- 624 k.
Izincwadi zokulungiselela Ukuhlolwa Kwezifundo Zesimo Sezwe kanye noHlelo Lokuhlolwa Lwesizwe Olunobunye
1. I-Geography: isifundo sokuqala. Ukuhlolwa. Incwadi yombhalo isibonelelo sabafundi abangama-6. - M. Ubuntu. ed. Isikhungo seVLADOS, 2011 .-- 144 k.
2. Uvivinyo. Ukuma komhlaba. Ibanga 6-10: Ibhukwana lezemfundo / lokwenza / i-A.A. Letyagin. - I-M.: I-LLC "I-ejensi" ye-KRPA "i-Olimpiki": "i-Astrel", "AST", 2001. - 284 k.
Izinto ezisetshenziswa kwi-Intanethi
1. I-Federal Institute for Pedagogical Measurements (Umthombo).
2. I-Russian Geographical Society (Umthombo).
Izethulo zezingane ezingama-900 nezethulo ezingama-20,000 zezingane zesikole (Umthombo).
Uma uthola iphutha noma isixhumanisi esiphukile, sicela usazise - yenza umnikelo wakho ekuthuthukisweni kwephrojekthi.
Incazelo
Ukuqhekeka komhlaba kufana nokwakheka ekuqhekekeni kwamaplanethi amaningi eqenjini lomhlaba, ngaphandle kweMercury. Ngaphezu kwalokho, uhlobo olufanayo lokuqhekeka lusenyangeni nama-satellite amaningi amaplanethi amakhulu. Ngaphezu kwalokho, uMhlaba uhlukile ngoba unezinhlobo ezimbili zokuqunjelwa: ezwekazini kanye nolwandlekazi. Ukuqhekeka komhlaba kubonakaliswa ukunyakaza okungapheli: okuvundlile noku-oscillatory.
Iningi le-crust liqukethe ama-basalts. Ubuningi bokuqhekeka komhlaba buqikelelwa kumathani ayi-2,8 210 19 (kuthi ama-21% amawa olwandle abe ngu-78% ezwekazini). Ukuqhekeka kungu-0.473% kuphela wesisindo soMhlaba.
Ngezansi kwengubo yingubo, ehlukile ekubunjweni nasezindaweni ezibonakalayo - inobukhulu obukhulu, iqukethe izinto ezithandekayo. Umngcele weMokhorovichich uhlukanisa uqweqwe nesembatho, lapho kunokwanda okukhulu khona ngesivinini samagagasi omhlaba.
Ukwakheka kokuqhuma komhlaba
Igobolondo elinzima leplanethi - Ukuqhekeka komhlaba - kukhawulelwe indawo yomhlaba noma phansi olwandle. Iphinde ibe nomngcele we-geophysical, okuyisigaba Moho. Umngcele ubonakala ngokuthi lapha ijubane lamagagasi okuthuthumela komhlaba lenyuka kakhulu. Ukufake ku $ 1909 $, usosayensi waseCroatia A. Mohorovich ($1857$-$1936$).
Ukuqothuka komhlaba sedimentary, magmatic ne-metamorphic amadwala, futhi ekwakhiweni kwalo kuyabonakala izingqimba ezintathu. Amadwala wemvelaphi yedimentary, impahla ebunjiwe yayo yaphindiselwa kabusha ezingxenyeni eziphansi futhi yakhiwa ungqimba lodimentary Ukuqhekeka komhlaba, kumboza wonke umhlaba. Kwezinye izindawo mncane kakhulu futhi kungaphazamiseka. Kwezinye izindawo, ifinyelela kumandla wamakhilomitha ambalwa. Amadiphozi asedimentary awobumba, i-limestone, i-chalk, i-sandstone, njll. Akhiwa ngokufakwa kwezinto emanzini nasemhlabeni, futhi kuvame ukulele ezingqimbeni. Ngamatshe edimentary ungafunda ngezimo zemvelo ezazikhona emhlabeni, ngakho izazi zokuma komhlaba zibabiza kanjalo amakhasi omlando woMhlaba. Amatshe e-Sedimentary ahlukaniswe i-organogenicezakhiwa ukuqongelela izinsalela zezilwane nezitshalo kanye ezingokwemvelo, nayo ihlukaniswe enyanyekayo kanye chemogenic.
Uqedile umsebenzi esihlokweni esifanayo
Udoti amadwala angumkhiqizo wesimo sezulu, futhi chemogenic - umphumela wokukhishwa kwezinto ezincibilikisiwe emanzini olwandle namachibi.
Kudalwa amadwala we-Igneous ugogo ungqimba lomhlaba uqweqwe. Lamadwala akhiwa ngenxa yokuqina kwe-magma encibilikisiwe. Emazwekazini, ubukhulu balo ungqimba ngama- $ 15 $ - $ 20 $ km, awukho ngokuphelele noma ancishiswe kakhulu ngaphansi kwezilwandle.
Umuthi we-Igneous kepha ompofu ku-silica uyabumba basalt ungqimba onobukhulu obukhulu obuthile. Lesi singqimba sakhiwa kahle ngaphansi komhlaba wokuqothuka komhlaba kuzo zonke izifunda zomhlaba.
Isakhiwo esime mpo nobukhulu bokuguguleka komhlaba kuhlukile, ngakho-ke, izinhlobo zazo eziningi ziyahlukaniswa. Ngokuhlukaniswa okulula, kukhona olwandle nolwandlekazi Ukuqothuka komhlaba.
Ukuqothuka kwezwekazi
Ukuqothuka kwezwekazi noma kwezwekazi kwehlukile ekuqothulweni olwandle ubukhulu kanye nedivayisi. Ukuqothuka kwezwekazi kutholakala ngaphansi kwamazwekazi, kepha umphetho wawo awuhambelani nogu lolwandle. Kusuka endaweni yokubukwa kwe-geology, izwekazi langempela liyindawo yonke yendawo eqinile yezwekazi. Ngemuva kwalokho kuvela ukuthi amazwekazi endawo angaphezu kwamazwe ezwe. Izindawo ezisogwini zezwekazi zibizwa phesheya kwezilwandle - lezi zingxenye zamazwekazi aguguleka okwesikhashana olwandle. Izilwandle ezinjenge-White, East Siberian ne-Azov zitholakala eshalofini yezwekazi.
Izingqimba ezintathu ziqhamuke ekuqothulweni kwezwekazi:
- Isendlalelo esiphezulu sidimentary,
- Ungqimba oluphakathi luyigogo,
- Ungqimba olungezansi yi-basalt.
Ngaphansi kwezintaba ezisencane, lolu hlobo lokuqhekeka lunobukhulu obungama- $ 75 $ km, ngaphansi kwamathafa - kuze kufike ku- $ 45 $ km, nangaphansi kwama-arcs esiqhingi - aze afike ku- $ 25 $ km. Ungqimba olungaphezulu lokuqothuka kwezwekazi lwenziwa ngamabumba wedaka kanye nama-carbonates asezindaweni zasolwandle angajulile kanye nasezintabeni zombala eziqinile emikhombeni ese marginal, kanye nasemaphethelweni angenamkhawulo ezwekazini zohlobo lwe-Atlantic.
I-magma ehlasela imifantu yokuqunjelwa komhlaba yenziwa ungqimba wegranite equkethe i-silica, i-aluminium namanye amaminerali. Ubukhulu bengqimba ye-granite bungafinyelela ku- $ 25 $ km. Le ungqimba lusendulo kakhulu futhi lunobudala obonakalayo - iminyaka engama- $ 3 $ bhiliyoni. Phakathi kwengqimba yegranite ne-basalt, ekujuleni kuze kufike ku- $ 20 $ km, umngcele ungalandelelwa. UConrad. Kubonakala ngeqiniso lokuthi isivinini sokusakazeka kwamagagasi omhlaba omude sikhula lapha, ngo- $ 0.5 $ km / s.
Ukwakheka basalt ungqimba lwenzeka njengomphumela wokuthululwa kwendle yembobo yasasaltic ezindaweni ezi-intraplate magmatism emhlabeni. Ama-basalts aqukethe i-iron eningi, i-magnesium ne-calcium, ngakho-ke asinda kune-granite. Kulesi sendlalelo, isantya sokusasaza kwamagagasi omhlaba omude sisuka ku- $ 6.5 $ - $ 7.3 $ km / s. Lapho umngcele ufiphala, ukusondelana kwamagagasi omhlaba omude kukhula kancane kancane.
Ubuningi bembatho yomhlaba kusukela osindweni weplanethi yonke kuphela ngama- $ 0,473 $%.
Eminye yemisebenzi yokuqala ehambisana nokunquma ukwakheka izwekazi eliphezulu amagxolo, isayensi encane yathatha ukuxazulula i-geochemistry. Njengoba amagxolo aqukethe izinhlobo eziningi ezahlukahlukene, lo msebenzi wawunzima kakhulu. Noma emzimbeni owodwa we-geological, ukwakheka kwamadwala kungahluka kakhulu, futhi izinhlobo ezahlukene zamadwala zingasatshalaliswa ezindaweni ezihlukile. Ngokusekelwe kulokhu, umsebenzi bekuwukunquma jikelele ukwakhiwa okuphakathi leyongxenye yokuqunjelwa komhlaba, okufika ezwenikazi. Lokhu kuhlola kokuqala kokuqanjwa kwengqimba ephezulu eyenziwe UClark. Usebenze i-US Geological Survey futhi ubandakanyeka ekuhlaziyweni ngamakhemikhali ngamatshe. Ekuhambeni kweminyaka eminingi yomsebenzi wokuhlaziya, wakwazi ukufingqa imiphumela futhi wabala ukwakheka okujwayelekile kwamadwala, ayesondele ugogo. Sebenza UClark ngaphansi kokugxekwa kanzima futhi wayenabaphikisi.
Kwenziwe umzamo wesibili wokubona ukwakheka okuphakathi kokuquketheka komhlaba V. Goldschmidt. Ubuye waphakamisa ukuthi ukuhamba laphaya ezwekazini ezwekazini iqhwa, ikwazi ukudonsa futhi ixube amadwala afika lapha phezulu, azobekwa lapho kuguguleka intaba yeqhwa. Ngemuva kwalokho bazobe bebonisa ukwakheka kwengqimba yangaphakathi yezwekazi. Ngemuva kokuhlaziya ukwakheka kobumba lweteyiphu, okwathi lapho kufakwa imali yokugcina yafakwa kuyo Ulwandle lweBalticuthole umphumela eduze komphumela UClark. Izindlela ezahlukahlukene zinikeze izilinganiso ezifanayo. Izindlela ze-Geochemical zaqinisekiswa. Lezi zinkinga zadingidwa, futhi izilinganiso zamukelwa kabanzi. UVinogradov, uYaroshevsky, uRonov nabanye.
Ukuqothuka kolwandle
Ukuqothuka kolwandle etholakala lapho ukujula kolwandle kungaphezu kwama- $ 4 $ km, okusho ukuthi ayihlali sonke isikhala sezilwandle. Indawo yonke embozwe ngamagxolo. uhlobo lwaphakathi Ukuqothuka kwe-olwandle akuhlelekile kufana nokuqothuka kwezwekazi, yize ibuye ihlukaniswe izendlalelo. Cishe ayikho ngokuphelele ungqimba wegranitefuthi i-sedimentary incane kakhulu futhi inamandla angaphansi kwe- $ 1 $ km. Isendlalelo sesibili sisekhona akwaziwangakho-ke ibizwa nje ngokuthi ungqimba lwesibili. Izinga eliphansi, lesithathu - basalt. Izendlalelo ze-basaltic zengqimba yezwekazi nolwandlekazi ziyafana ngesivinini samaza olwandle. Ungqimba lwe-basaltic olwandle oluthelekayo luyanqoba. Ngokusho komqondo we-plate tectonics, ukuqina kolwandle njalo kwakhiwa emaphethelweni olwandle lwangaphakathi, bese kusuka kubo kufinyelela ezifundeni. ukukhishwa amungene engubeni. Lokhu kusikisela ukuthi ukuqhuma kolwandle olwandle ngokulinganayo omncane. Inani elikhulu kakhulu lezindawo zokungeniswa luphawu lwazo Pacificlapho ukuzamazama komhlaba okunamandla kuhlangene nakho.
Ukuzithoba - lokhu kwehliswa kwedwala kusuka emaphethelweni epulangwe elilodwa le-tectonic liye ku-asthenosphere encibilikisiwe
Esimweni lapho ipuleti eliphezulu liyipuleti yezwekazi, futhi phansi - kwasolwandle - kukhiwa izinkomishi zolwandle.
Ukuqina kwayo ezindaweni ezihlukile kwezwe kuyahlukahluka kusuka ku- $ 5 $ - $ 7 $ km. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, ubukhulu be-seaic crust buhlala bungashintshi. Lokhu kungenxa yenani lokuncibilika okukhishwe engutsheni esezigodini eziphakathi nolwandle nobukhulu besendlalelo esingaphansi komhlaba olwandle nasolwandle.
Isendlalelo sediment I-seaic crust incane futhi akuvamile ukuba idlule ubukhulu obungu- $ 0.5 $ km. Siqukethe isihlabathi, amadiphozithi ezinsalela zezilwane kanye namaminerali akhona. Amatshe weCarbonate engxenye engezansi awatholakali ekujuleni okukhulu, futhi ekujuleni okungaphezu kwama- $ 4.5 $ km, amadwala e-carbonate athathelwa indawo yizicucu ezibomvu ezijulile namasilika abushelelezi.
I-Tholeiitic basaltic lavas yakhiwa engxenyeni engenhla ungqimba lwe-basalt, nangaphansi kwamanga I-dyke tata.
I-Dykes Ingabe iziteshi lapho i-basaltic lava yehlela khona phezulu
Ungqimba lwe-Basaltic ezindaweni ukukhishwa liphenduka ecgolithsawela ekujuleni ngoba anabantu abaningi kakhulu bezungeza zamatshe eziwazungezile. Isisindo sazo singama- $ 7 $% wesisindo sayo yonke ingubo yoMhlaba. Ngaphakathi ungqimba lwe-basaltic, isivinini samagagasi omhlaba omude singama- $ 6.5 $ - $ 7 $ km / s.
Iminyaka ephakathi yokuqothuka olwandle yiminyaka eyizigidi eziyizigidi ezingama- $ 100, ngenkathi izigaba zayo ezindala zineminyaka engama- $ 156 $ million futhi zitholakala ekucindezelekeni I-Pajafeta oLwandle iPacific. Ukuqothuka olwandle akuxhunyiwe hhayi ngaphakathi kombhede oLwandle Lomhlaba kuphela, futhi kungaba ezitsheni ezivalekile, ngokwesibonelo, ukucindezelwa kwasenyakatho koLwandle iCaspian. Olwandle ukugcwala komhlaba kunendawo ephelele yama- $ 306 $ million sq.
Ukwakheka kokuqhuma komhlaba
Igobolondo elinzima lomhlaba lizinhlobo ezimbili: i-Oceanic (etholakala ngaphansi kolwandle) nezwekazi. Ukuqothuka kolwandle mncane kakhulu, futhi ngenxa yalokho, yize ihlala endaweni enkulu, ubunzima bayo buphindwe izikhathi ezine crust yezwekazi. Lolu ungqimba lweplanethi liqukethe ikakhulukazi izisekelo. Ikakhulu uma ifika kuleyo ngxenye yayo etholakala ngaphansi kwezilwandle. Kepha ukwakheka kokuqhekeka kwamazwekazi kuyinkimbinkimbi ngokwengeziwe, ngoba kuqukethe izingqimba ezi-3: i-basalt, i-granite (iqukethe amagalari namagneja) kanye namatshe edwala (amadwala ahlukahlukene wedimentary). By the way, the sedimentary ungqimba futhi kungenzeka aqukethe ku-olwandle oluthuli, kodwa ukuba khona kwalo kuncane.
Kufanele kuqondwe ukuthi ukwakheka kokuqhekeka komhlaba wonke kubukeka kanjena, kepha kunezindawo lapho ungqimba lwe-basalt luphuma, noma, ngakolunye uhlangothi, ungqimba lwe-basalt alukho, futhi uqweqwe lumelelwa kuphela ungqimba wegreyiti.
Ungakufunda kanjani ukwakheka koMhlaba namanye amaplanethi?
Ukutadisha ukwakheka kwangaphakathi kwamaplanethi, kufaka phakathi uMhlaba wethu, kungumsebenzi onzima kakhulu. Asikwazi "ukumba" ngokwasemhlabeni ukugcwala komhlaba kuze kufinyelele embindini weplanethi, ngakho-ke lonke ulwazi esilutholile okwamanje ulwazi olutholwe "ngokuthinta", nangendlela engokoqobo impela.
Ukuhlola komhlaba kusebenza kanjani esibonelweni sokuhlolwa kawoyela. 'Sibiza' umhlaba futhi "ulalele", okuzosilethela isibonakaliso esikhonjisiwe
Iqiniso ukuthi indlela elula nethembeke kunazo zonke yokuthola ukuthi yini okungaphansi komhlaba, futhi iyingxenye yokuqhekeka kwayo ukutadisha isantya sokusakazeka amaza omhlaba emathunjini omhlaba.
Kuyaziwa ukuthi ukusondelana kwamagagasi omhlaba omude kukhuphuka emithonjeni yabezindaba futhi, kunalokho, kuyancipha emhlabathini omile. Ngokufanelekile, ngokwazi imingcele yezinhlobo ezahlukene zamadwala nokubala idatha ekucindezelweni, njll., "Ukulalela" impendulo etholakele, singakwazi ukuqonda ukuthi zingakanani izingqimba zomhlaba lapho isibonakaliso sokuzamazama komhlaba sidlule nokuthi zijule kangakanani ngaphansi komhlaba.
Ukutadisha ukwakheka kokuqhekeka komhlaba kusetshenziswa amaza omhlaba
Ukudlidliza kokuzamazama komhlaba kungadalwa izinhlobo ezimbili zemithombo: okwemvelo futhi wobuciko. Imithombo yemvelo yama-oscillation ukuzamazama komhlaba, amagagasi ayo athatha imininingwane edingekayo ngobuningi bamadwala angena ngalo.
Umdwebo wemithombo yokufeketha eyindalo ubanzi kakhulu, kepha ngokuyinhloko ama-oscillation abangelwa ukuqhuma okuvamile, kepha kunezindlela “ezicashile” zokusebenza - ama-generator ama-pulse generator, ama-vibrator asolwandle, njll.
Izifundo ze-Blasting and seismic wave velocity ukuhlola kokuzamazama komhlaba - elinye lamagatsha abaluleke kakhulu ama-geophysics anamuhla.
Ngabe ukutadisha kwamagagasi okuthuthumela komhlaba ngaphakathi koMhlaba kunikeze ini? Ukuhlaziywa kokusatshalaliswa kwembula ukugxuma okuningi kwoshintsho ngejubane lapho kudlula emathunjini omhlaba.
Ukunyakaza kokuqothuka komhlaba
Ukuqothuka kuhlale kuhamba. Ngokuqondile, amapuleti we-tectonic, okuyingxenye yengqimba, ahamba. Kepha thina, kunjalo, ngeke sikuzwe lokhu, ngoba ijubane lokuhamba kwabo lincane kakhulu. Kepha, noma kunjalo, ukubaluleka kwale nqubo kobuso beplanethi kubaluleke kakhulu, ngoba kungenye yezinto ezithinta ukukhululeka koMhlaba. Ngakho-ke, lapho ama-slabs ehlangana khona, amagquma, izintaba, futhi ngesinye isikhathi amafomu wamaketanga wezintaba. Futhi kulezo zindawo lapho amapuleti echezuka khona, ifomu lokudangala.
Ukuzamazama komhlaba
Ukuzamazama komhlaba kuyinkinga enkulu yesintu, ngoba kwesinye isikhathi konakalisa imigwaqo, izakhiwo, futhi kuthatha izinkulungwane zezimpilo.
Umnyombo weplanethi
Maphakathi nembulunga yethu kukhona umnyombo. Inobukhulu obukhulu nokushisa okuqhathaniswa nokushisa kwelanga kweLanga.
Ingubo
Ngaphansi kokuqothuka komhlaba kukhona ingubo (“ikhava, ingubo”). Lesi ungqimba sinobukhulu obufika ku-2900 km. Ibalelwa ku-83% weplanethi ephelele futhi icishe ibe ngama-70% wesisindo. Ijazi liqukethe amaminerali asindayo acebile nge-iron ne-magnesium. Lesi singqimba sinokushisa okungaphezulu kuka-2000 ° C. Noma kunjalo, iningi lezinto ezibonakalayo zesembatho ligcina isimo esiqinile sekristali ngenxa yengcindezi enkulu. Ebangeni elijule ngamakhilomitha angama-50 kuye kwangama-200 kukhona ungqimba olungaphezulu lwesambatho. Ibizwa ngokuthi yi-asthenosphere ("i-spaw engenamandla"). I-asthenosphere ipulasitiki kakhulu, yingoba intaba-mlilo iqhuma futhi amaminerali ama-deposits amafomu. Ubukhulu be-asthenosphere bufinyelela ku-100 baye ku-250 km. Umuthi ongena usutvelo ungene emhlabeni uqweqwe futhi kwesinye isikhathi uthululele phezu komhlaba ubizwa ngokuthi yi-magma (“mash, uwoyela obukhulu”). Lapho i-magma iqina ebusweni bomhlaba, iphenduka ibe yi-lava.
Ngaphansi kwengubo, njengokungathi ngaphansi kweveli, kungumgogodla womhlaba. Itholakala kumakhilomitha angama-2900 ukusuka ebusweni bomhlaba. Okumaphakathi kunokwakheka kwebhola elinomsakazo ongaba ngu-3 500 km. Njengoba abantu bengakakwazi ukufinyelela emnyameni woMhlaba, ososayensi bacabanga ngokwakhiwa kwawo. Ngokusobala, umongo uqukethe insimbi exutshwe nezinye izinto. Le yingxenye emincane kakhulu futhi esindayo yomhlaba. Kubhekela kuphela i-15% yomthamo woMhlaba futhi kungama-35% esisindo.
Kukholakala ukuthi isisekelo sakhiwe ngezendlalelo ezimbili - isisekelo esingaphakathi esiqinile (esine-radius engaba ngu-1300 km) ne-low fluid (cishe amakhilomitha angama-2200). Ingaphakathi elingaphakathi libonakala lintantazela engxenyeni engamanzi yangaphandle. Ngenxa yalokhu kuhamba okujikeleze umhlaba, amandla alo kazibuthe ayakhiwa (yiwona avikela iplanethi kwimisebe eyingozi yomhlaba, futhi inalithi yekhampasi iyaphendula kuyo). Umongo yingxenye eshisa kakhulu yomhlaba wethu. Isikhathi eside bekukholelwa ukuthi amazinga okushisa awo afinyelela, mhlawumbe, 4000-5000 ° C. Kodwa-ke, ngonyaka we-2013, ososayensi benza ucwaningo lwelabhoratri lapho benquma khona indawo encibilikayo yensimbi, okungenzeka ukuthi iyingxenye yomgogodla womhlaba wangaphakathi. Ngakho-ke kwavela ukuthi izinga lokushisa eliphakathi kwengqimba engaphakathi nengaphakathi loketshezi lilingana namazinga okushisa kwelanga, okungukuthi, cishe ngo-6000 ° C.
Ukwakheka komhlaba wethu kungenye yezimfihlo eziningi ezingasombululwa yisintu. Iningi lemininingwane ngaye litholwe ngezindlela eziqondile; akekho ososayensi ongakaze akwazi ukuthola amasampula womongo womhlaba. Ukutadisha ukwakheka nokwakheka koMhlaba kusagcwele ubunzima obungenakunqotshwa, kepha abacwaningi abayeki futhi bafuna izindlela ezintsha zokuthola imininingwane ethembekile ngomhlaba.
Imihlahlandlela
Lapho befunda isihloko esithi “Isakhiwo Sangaphakathi soMhlaba”, abafundi bangaba nobunzima bokukhumbula amagama nokuhleleka kwezingqimba zomhlaba. Amagama esiLatini kuzoba lula kakhulu ukukhumbula uma izingane zakha imodeli yazo yoMhlaba. Ungamema abafundi ukuthi benze umfuziselo womhlaba kusuka kupulasitiki noma utshele ngesakhiwo sawo ngesibonelo sezithelo (ikhasi - uqweqwe, inyama - isembatho, ithambo - umongo) nezinto ezinesakhiwo esifanayo. Incwadi yejografi izosiza esifundweni. Amabanga 5-6 we-O.A. Klimanova, lapho uzothola khona imifanekiso emibalabala nolwazi olunemininingwane ngesihloko.
Ukuqothuka kolwandle
I-seaic crust iqukethe ikakhulu ama-basalts. Ngokwombono we-tectonics weplate, yakheka ngokuqhubekayo kumaphethelo olwandle oluphakathi nendawo, ahlukane nawo futhi amunca engutsheni yezindawo ezisetshenziselwa ukungena ngaphansi komhlaba. Ngakho-ke, indawo eqhelelene nolwandle incanyana, futhi amasayithi wayo amadala abizwa ngeJurassic esekupheleni.
Ubukhulu bohlobo lwamaza olwandle empeleni aluguquki ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, ngoba ikakhulukazi kunqunywa inani elincibilikayo elikhishwe kwinto yengubo ezigodini zezigodi eziphakathi nolwandle. Ngokwezinga elithile, ukushuba kongqimba lodimentary phansi kwezilwandle kunomthelela. Ezindaweni ezihlukene zezindawo, ubukhulu bamanzi asolwandle ahlukahluka phakathi kwamakhilomitha angama-5- 10 (amakhilomitha angama-9 ukuya kwangu-12 ngamanzi).
Njengengxenye yokuhlukaniswa koMhlaba ngokwezinto ezenziwa, imvelo yasolwandle ingeyamaLwandle esolwandle. Ubukhulu be-latic yolwandle, ngokungafani neqhubu, kuncike kakhulu kubudala bayo. Ezindaweni zamaphethelo ophakathi nolwandle, i-asthenosphere isondela kakhulu ngaphezu komhlaba, futhi ungqimba lwe-lithosphere cishe alukho ngokuphelele. Lapho uhambela kude nezigaba zeziphethu zasolwandle eziphakathi nendawo, ubukhulu be-lithosphere kuqala ukukhula ngokulingana nobudala bawo, khona-ke isilinganiso sokukhula siyancipha. Ezindalini ezingaphansi, ubukhulu be-ulwandle lwasolwandle lufinyelela kumanani alo aphezulu, afinyelela kumakhilomitha ayi-130-140.
Ukuqothuka kwezwekazi
I-Continental (Continental) crust inesakhiwo esingamasendla amathathu. Isendlalelo esingaphezulu sifanekiselwa yisembozo esivumayo samatshe aseduzane, athuthukiswa kabanzi, kepha akuvamile ukuba abe nobukhulu obukhulu. Iningi le-crust ligoqiwe ngaphansi kwe-crust engenhla - ungqimba oluqukethe ikakhulukazi ama-granite nama-gneisses, anobuncane obuphansi nomlando wasendulo. Ucwaningo lukhombisa ukuthi iningi lalawa matwala lakha kudala kakhulu, cishe eminyakeni eyizigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezintathu edlule. Ngezansi kwesibalo esingaphansi, esakhiwe ngamatshe e-metamorphic - granulites nokunye okunjalo.
Ukwakheka kokuqothuka kwezwekazi
Ukuqhekeka komhlaba inani elincane lezinto. Cishe ingxenye yengqimba yomhlaba yokuqunjelwa komhlaba ingu-oxygen, ngaphezu kwe-25% yi-silicon. Izakhi eziyi-18 kuphela: O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg, H, Ti, C, Cl, P, S, N, Mn, F, Ba - zakha u-99.8% wobukhulu bokuqhuma komhlaba (cm) .table ngezansi).
Ukuthola ukwakheka kwengxenyeni ephezulu yezwekazi ngomunye wemisebenzi yokuqala isayensi entsha ye-geochemistry ethathe ukuyixazulula. Empeleni, ngemizamo yokuxazulula le nkinga, kwavela i-geochemistry. Lo msebenzi unzima kakhulu, ngoba ukugqwala komhlaba kuqukethe amadwala amaningi ahlukahlukene ahlukahlukene. Ngisho ngaphakathi komzimba ofanayo we-geological, ukwakheka kwamadwala kungahluka kakhulu. Ezindaweni ezihlukile, izinhlobo ezahlukene zamadwala zingahanjiswa. Ngokubona konke lokhu, kwavela inkinga yokunquma ukwakheka okujwayelekile, okuphakathi kwengxenye yaleyo ngxenye yomhlaba eqhamuka emhlabeni ezwenikazi. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, ngokushesha kuphakama umbuzo wokuqukethwe kwaleli gama.
Ukuhlolwa kokuqala kokuqanjwa kwengqimba ephezulu kwenziwa nguFrank Clark. UClark wayeyilungu le-US Geological Survey futhi wayebandakanyeka ekuhlaziyweni kwamakhemikhali ngamatshe. Ngemuva kweminyaka eminingi yomsebenzi wokuhlaziya, wafingqa imiphumela yokuhlaziya futhi wabala ukwakhiwa okumaphakathi kwamatshe. Ubuye waphakamisa ukuthi izinkulungwane zamasampula, ezikhethwe ngokungakhethi, zibonisa ukwakheka okuphakathi kokuqhekeka komhlaba (bheka uClark of Elements). Lo msebenzi kaClark wabangela isiyaluyalu emphakathini wesayensi. Wagxekwa kakhulu, njengoba abacwaningi abaningi beqhathanisa le ndlela nokuthola "izinga lokushisa eliphakathi kwesibhedlela, kufaka phakathi ne-morgue." Abanye abacwaningi bakholelwe ukuthi le ndlela ilungele into enobuhlakani obunjengokugcwala komhlaba. UClark ukwakheka komhlaba ukuqhuma komhlaba kwakusondele granite.
Umzamo olandelayo wokuthola ukwakheka okuphakathi kokuqhekeka komhlaba wenziwa iViktor Goldschmidt. Wenze umcabango wokuthi iqhwa elihamba eduze kwezwekazi liginqe wonke amadwala afika lapha phezulu, liwaxube. Ngenxa yalokhu, amadwala afakwa ngenxa yokuguguleka kwe-glacial akhombisa ukwakheka kwengqimba yezwekazi eliphakathi. IGoldschmidt ihlaziye ukwakheka kwamagquma ebambo abekwe kuLwandle lweBaltic ngesikhathi sokugcina. Ukwakheka kwabo kwakusondele ngokumangazayo ukwakheka okujwayelekile okutholwe nguClark. Ukuhlangana kwezilinganiso ezitholwe izindlela eziningi ezahlukahlukene sekuyisiqinisekiso esinamandla sezindlela ze-geochemical.
Kamuva, abacwaningi abaningi babamba iqhaza ekunqumeni ukwakheka kwengqimba yezwekazi. Izilinganiso zeVinogradov, iVedepol, uRonov kanye neYaroshevsky zithole ukuqashelwa okubanzi kwesayensi.
Eminye imizamo emisha yokuthola ukwakheka kwengqimba yezwekazi isuselwa ekuyihlukaniseni ngezingxenye ezakheke kuzilungiselelo ezahlukahlukene ze-geodynamic.
Umngcele ophakathi kwe-crust engenhla nengaphansi
Izindlela eziqondile ze-geochemical ne-geophysical zisetshenziselwa ukutadisha ukwakheka komhlaba, kepha idatha eqondile ingatholwa ngokumba ngokujulile. Lapho wenza ukujula okujulile kwesayensi, umbuzo uvame ukuphakanyiswa ngohlobo lomngcele ophakathi kwendawo ephezulu (i-granite) ne-low (basalt) crust yezwekazi. Ukutadisha lo magazini, umthombo we-Saatli wabiwa e-USSR. Endaweni yokumba, kwabonwa i-anomaly yokudonsela phansi, ehambisana nokuhlangana kwesisekelo. Kepha ukugaya kukhombisa ukuthi kukhona ukuhlangana okungathandeki ngaphansi komthombo. Lapho ushayela umthombo we-Kola Ultra-deep, umngcele weKonrad nawo awuzange ufinyelelwe. Ngo-2005, abezindaba baxoxa ngokuthi kungenzeka yini ukuthi bangene emngceleni weMokhorovichich futhi bangene engutsheni ephezulu basebenzise amakhompiyutha we-tungsten afudumele ukushisa kwe-radionuclides ebolayo.
Umongo womhlaba
Phansi kwengubo, kwehla kakhulu ijubane lokusakazeka kwamagagasi amade asuka ku-13.9 kuya ku-7.6 km / s. Kuleli zinga kulele umngcele phakathi kwengubo futhi umnyombo womhlaba,, okujulile kunalokho amagagasi okudlidliza komhlaba asanyakazayo.
Imisebe yomgogodla ifinyelela ku-3500 km, umthamo wayo: 16% wevolumu yeplanethi, kanye nobukhulu: 31% besisindo soMhlaba.
Ososayensi abaningi bakholelwa ukuthi umnyombo usesimweni esincibilikisiwe. Ingxenye yayo yangaphandle ibonakala ngokuhamba okuqinile kwe-longitudinal wave velocities; engxenyeni engaphakathi (enemisebe engu-1200 km), imigwaqo ye-seismic wave velocities iphinda ikhuphuke ibe ngu-11 km / s. Ubuningi bamadwala ayisisekelo yi-11 g / cm 3, futhi kubangelwa ukuba khona kwezinto ezisindayo. I-Iron ingaba yinto esindayo kangako. Okunokwenzeka kakhulu, i-iron iyingxenye ebalulekile yomgogodla, ngoba umongo wokuqamba wensimbi noma i-iron-nickel kuphela kufanele ube nobude obungu-8-15% ngaphezulu kunobukhulu obukhona besisekelo. Ngakho-ke, umoya-mpilo, isibabule, isikhutha, ne-hydrogen ngokusobala zinamathiselwe kwensimbi esembindini.
Indlela ye-Geochemical yokutadisha ukwakheka kwamaplanethi
Kukhona enye indlela yokufunda ukwakheka okujulile kwamaplanethi - indlela yokuma komhlaba. Ukwahlukaniswa kwamagobolondo ahlukahlukene oMhlaba namanye amaplanethi eqembu lomhlaba ngokwamakhompiyutha angokomzimba kuthola ukuqinisekiswa okucacile ngokwanele kwe-geochemical ngokususelwa kumqondo we-heterogenible accretion, ngokusho kwalokho ukwakheka kwe-nuclei yeplanethi namagobolondo ayo angaphandle kuhluke ngokuyisisekelo futhi kuya ngesigaba sokuqala kakhulu kwentuthuko.
Ngenxa yale nqubo, esindayo kunazo zonke (insimbi ye-nickel) izakhi, kanye namagobolondo angaphandle - i-silrate elulachondritic) ukucebisa engubeni ephezulu ngezinto ezibuthakathaka namanzi.
Isici esibaluleke kakhulu samaplanethi asemhlabeni (iMercury, iVenus, uMhlaba, iMars) ukuthi igobolondo labo elingaphandle, okuthiwa ukukhonkotha, iqukethe izinhlobo ezimbili zezinto: "izwe"- feldspar no"olwandle"- i-basaltic.
Ukuqothuka komhlaba wonke komhlaba
Ukuqhekeka komhlaba jikelele (kwamazwekazi) oMhlaba kwenziwa ngamatshe agqamile noma amadwala asondele kuwo ekwakhiweni, i.e., amadwala anenombolo enkulu yamafeldspars. Ukwakheka kwesendlalelo se- “granite” soMhlaba kungenxa yokuguqulwa kokudalwa okudala kakhulu ngenkathi kwenziwa inqubo yobumbano.
Ungqimba wegranite kufanele lubhekwe njenge ethize igobolondo lokuqhekeka komhlaba - okuwukuphela kweplanethi lapho izinqubo zokuhlukaniswa kwezinto ngokubamba iqhaza kwamanzi nokuba nomoya we-hydrosphere, umkhathi we-oksijini kanye nendawo ephilayo kusungulwa kabanzi. ENyangeni futhi, mhlawumbe, kumaplanethi weqembu lesibhakabhaka, ukugcwala kwezwekazi kwenziwa nge-gabbro-anorthosites - amadwala aqukethe inani elikhulu le-feldspar, nokho, ekwakhekeni okuhlukile okuhlukile kunamagranite.
Lamadwala ahlanganisa iminyaka yakudala (iminyaka eyizigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezi-4 - 4,5,5) yobuso bamaplanethi.
Ulwandle lwe-Oceanic (basaltic) loMhlaba
Ulwandle lwe-Oceanic (basaltic) Umhlaba wenziwa ngenxa yokwelula futhi uhlotshaniswa nezindawo zamaphutha ajulile abangele ukungena kwengubo engenhla kuya ku-basalt foci. I-Basaltic volcanism isikwa phezulu ekuqhekekeni okwakhiwe phambilini kwezwekazi futhi ukwakheka okuncane komhlaba.
Ukubonakaliswa kwe-basaltic volcanism kuwo wonke amaplanethi asemhlabeni ngokufanayo ngokufanayo. Ukuthuthuka okubanzi kwe-basalt "sea" eNyangeni, Mars, naseMercury kusobala ukuthi kuhlotshaniswa nokwelulwa nokwakhiwa kwezindawo zemvume ngenxa yale nqubo, lapho isembatho se-basaltic sincibilika khona lapho. Le ndlela yokubonakaliswa kwe-basaltic volcanism ifana noma incane kakhulu kuwo wonke amaplanethi eqembu lomhlaba.
I-satellite yomhlaba - Inyanga nayo inesakhiwo segobolondo, ngokuvamile iphinda iphinda umhlaba, yize inesakhiwo esihlukile ngokumangazayo.
Ukushisa okushisa komhlaba. Into eshisa kakhulu isendaweni yamaphutha ekuqhekekeni komhlaba, futhi ebanda kakhulu - ezindaweni zamapuleti asendulo ezwekazi
Indlela yokulinganisa ukugeleza kokushisa ukutadisha ukwakheka kwamaplanethi
Enye indlela yokutadisha ukwakheka okujulile koMhlaba ukutadisha ukushisa kwawo. Kuyaziwa ukuthi uMhlaba, oshisayo ngaphakathi, unika ukushisa kwawo. Ukuqhuma kwentaba-mlilo, amageyizi, iziphethu ezishisayo kufakazela ukufudumala komhlaba. Ukushisa kungumthombo wamandla ophambili woMhlaba.
Izinga lokushisa lenyuka ngokujula okuvela kumhlaba ongaphezulu komhlaba okulinganiselwa ku-15 ° C nge-1 km. Lokhu kusho ukuthi emngceleni we-lithosphere kanye ne-asthenosphere, etholakala cishe ekujuleni kuka-100 km, izinga lokushisa kufanele libe ngu-1500 ° C. Sekutholakele ukuthi kulokhu kuncibilika kokushisa kwama-basalts. Lokhu kusho ukuthi igobolondo le-asthenospheric lingasebenza njengomthombo we-magma yokwakhiwa kwe-basalt.
Ngokujula, ukuguquka kokushisa kwenzeka ngokuya komthetho onzima ngokwengeziwe futhi kuncike ekushintsheni kwengcindezi. Ngokwemininingwane ebaliwe, ekujuleni okungama-400 km izinga lokushisa alidluli ku-1600 ° C futhi emngceleni womgogodla nengubo ilinganiselwa kuma-2500-5000 ° C.
Kusungulwe ukuthi ukushisa kukhishwa ngokuqhubekayo ngaphezulu kobuso bomhlaba. Ukushisa kuyipharamitha ebaluleke kakhulu yomzimba. Ezinye zezindawo zabo zincike kubungako bokushisa kwamatshe: ukubonwa, ukuqhutshwa kukagesi, amandla kazibuthe, isigaba sesigaba. Ngakho-ke, ngesimo esishisayo, umuntu angahlulela isakhiwo esijulile soMhlaba.
Ukulinganisa izinga lokushisa lomhlaba wethu ekujuleni okukhulu kuwumsebenzi onobuchwepheshe, ngoba ngamakhilomitha okuqala kuphela komhlaba aqhamukayo wokulinganiswa. Kodwa-ke, amazinga okushisa angaphakathi oMhlaba angafundwa ngokungaqondile ngokulinganisa ubushushu bokushisa.
Naphezu kweqiniso lokuthi ilanga lingumthombo oyinhloko wokushisa eMhlabeni, umfutho wokushisa ophelele weplanethi yethu udlula kathathu amandla wazo zonke izitshalo zamandla emhlabeni.
Ukulinganisa kukhombisa ukuthi isilinganiso sokushisa esilinganiselwe ezwenikazi nasemanzini olwandle kuyafana.Lo mphumela uchazwa iqiniso lokuthi olwandle iningi lokushisa (lize lifike ku-90%) livela engutsheni, lapho inqubo yokudlulisela izinto ngokuhamba ihamba kakhulu khona impela - ukuhlangana.
Ukushisa komhlaba kwangaphakathi. Ukusondela ekujuleni kwenhliziyo, kulapho umhlaba wethu ufana nelanga!
Ukuguqula kuyinqubo lapho uketshezi oluvuthayo lukhula khona, lube lula, futhi luphakame, ngenkathi izingqimba ezibandayo zibanda. Njengoba udaba lwe-mantle lusondelene nesifunda ngokuqinile, ukuhanjiswa kwalo kuqhubeka ngaphansi kwezimo ezikhethekile, ngamanani aphansi wokugeleza kwento.
Uyini umlando oshisayo weplanethi yethu? Ukushisa kwaso kokuqala kungenzeka kuhlotshaniswa nokushisa okukhiqizwa ukushayisana kwezinhlayiya nokuhlangana kwazo emkhakheni wayo wegrafu. Lapho-ke ukushisa bekungumphumela wokuwohloka kwemisebe. Ngaphansi kwethonya lokushisa, kwaqalwa ukwakheka komhlaba noMhlaba namaplanethi asemhlabeni.
Ukushisa komsakazo eMhlabeni kukhishwe manje. Kukhona i-hypothesis okusho ukuthi, emngceleni womgogodla woMhlaba, izinqubo zokuhlukanisa izinto ziyaqhubeka, ngokukhishwa kwenani elikhulu lamandla afudumisayo, kufudumeza ingubo.
