Imephu ye-Amazon River Basin. Isithombe: Kmusser / Wikimedia Commons

Ukuphendula lo mbuzo, okokuqala kufanele uthole ukuthi amanzi agcwalisa imifula avelaphi.

Umfula ngamunye uqala ngomjelo omncane, ogeleza kuwo abanye ogeleza, obizwa ngokuthi ngabakhokhi. Futhi, izintela zomfula omkhulu zingaba nezazo, izinkantolo ezincane. Njengomphumela, bonke bendawonye bakha uhlelo olubanzi lomfula. Kepha avelaphi amanzi avela emincane emincane inkokhelo? Kuyavela ukuthi badla emvuleni nasemanzini angaphansi komhlaba, nakwaqhwa abancane kakhulu. Ngakho-ke, umfula uqoqa kusuka endaweni ethile yonke imvula namanzi angaphansi komhlaba emfuleni owodwa. Indawo aqoqela kuyo amanzi emvula ibizwa ngokuthi yindawo ethola amanzi emvula, futhi le ndawo aqoqa kuyo amanzi aphansi komhlaba ibizwa ngokuthi yi-waterfall komhlaba. Isichazamazwi sokubamba siyichibi. Imvamisa, indawo ethathwa ngamanzi emvula ithathwa njengesichibi somfula, ngoba kunzima kakhulu ukuhlola imingcele yomthombo wamanzi angaphansi komhlaba.

Umgodi womfula noma iyiphi indawo lapho imvula inqwabelana futhi igeleze iye emfuleni ovamile. Indawo etholakala kuyo ifaka wonke amanzi angaphezulu ukusuka emvuleni, i-snowmelt, kanye nemifudlana eseduze egeleza ithambeka iye emfuleni ojwayelekile wamanzi, kanye namanzi aphansi komhlaba ngaphansi komhlaba.

Ngayinye, ngisho nomfula omncane kakhulu unechibi. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ubheshi womfula omkhulu umane nje uyisamba sezisekelo zazo zonke izintela zawo. Hlanganisa amachibi okuhambisa indle namanzi. Imifula enamanzi okugcwala indle igeleza emanzini olwandle, futhi izihlambi zamanzi okugcobhoza amanzi zigelezela emachibini angawodwa noma zimane zome ogwadule.

I-Amazon iyisigcini serekhodi sendawo etholakala kuyo. Ihlala amamitha skwele ayisigidi. km Isisekelo soMfula i-Afrika Congo silinganiselwa kumamitha-skwele ayizigidi ezine. km, kanti uMississippi ungamamitha-skwele ayi-2.98 million. km Zonke lezi zigodi zingamanzi amdaka. Kepha isisekelo seVolga sivalekile, ngoba singena kuLwandle lweCaspian, okuyiChibi elikhulu. Indawo yase-Volga basin ngamamitha skwele ayisigidi. km

Ngokwemvelo, indawo enkudlwana yendawo enkulu, umfula ujule ngokwengeziwe, njengoba iqoqa amanzi insimu enkulu. Kodwa-ke, lo mthetho awusetshenziswanga ngokuqinile, ngoba ukutholakala komhlaba kuwela ngokungalingani. Isibonelo, ibheshi laseYenisei lingamamitha skwele angama-2,58. km, noma kunjalo, ukuphuma kwayo ngokuphelele kwamanzi kukhulu kunokweMississippi (19800 ngokumelene nama-cubic m / s) angama-12743.

Uhlu lwemithombo esetshenzisiwe

Izinhlobo zezinto ezisehla imifula

Ososayensi bahlukanisa izinhlobo ezimbili zamabhishi emifula - ukuthuthwa kwendle nokudonsa. Izimbiza ezingenamanzi zifaka amanzi emifula namachibi angaxhunyiwe olwandle ngokuhamba ngomfula omkhulu. Ngendawo, ukwakheka nosayizi, zihlukahlukene. Ngakho-ke, izindawo zokukhuculula indle yilezo ezifinyelela olwandle ngenxa yalokho.

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Yonke imigwaqo yasemfuleni ibonakala ngobude bomfula omkhulu kanye nendawo lapho umfula uhlangana khona, umthamo wokuhamba kwamanzi nokuqina kombhede womfula, imithombo yamandla kanye nezimo zombuso we-hydro. Ngobude bomfula zihlukaniswe zaba ezinkulu, eziphakathi nezincane. Imifula idluliswa ngenxa yamanzi emvula, iqhwa, iqhwa, ngaphansi komhlaba, kanye nemifudlana, amachibi nemifula emincane nakho kubalulekile. Imvamisa, izigaxa zemifula ziba nokudla okuxubile uma kunemithombo eminingana yamanzi.

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Izigodi ezinkulu zemifula emhlabeni

Kukholakala ukuthi umfula ngamunye unechibi, noma ngabe ugeleza komunye umfula, ulwandle noma ulwandle. Amachibi amakhulu kunawo wonke emifula elandelayo:

Kuya ngendawo yezigodi zemifula, okokuqala, ebaluleke kakhulu kwezomnotho. Imifula ingumthombo oyinhloko wamanzi amasha. Amanzi abo asetshenziselwa ukunisela amasimu, kwenziwa izinhlelo zokunisela, izinsiza zamanzi zisetshenziselwa imboni (i-metallurgy, amandla, imboni yamakhemikhali). Hhayi izigaxa zomfula zenani lokugcina zidlala ngokudoba. Omunye wemisebenzi yemifula ukuzijabulisa.

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Ngakho-ke, umfula omkhulu, kanye nezinsizakusebenza kanye nemithombo engaphansi komhlaba yakha isisekelo somfula. Imizimba eyengeziwe yamanzi igeleza emfuleni, ichibi liba namanzi amaningi. Njengoba izinsiza zamanzi zibaluleke kakhulu ezimpilweni zabantu, zisetshenziswa ngenkuthalo ezindaweni ezahlukahlukene zomnotho nempilo yansuku zonke. Lokhu kuholela ekunciphiseni kweminye imithombo yokugcina amanzi, kepha ukuze sigweme lokhu, kubalulekile ukusebenzisa amanzi asezingeni lomfula weplanethi.

Isici

Ichibi lesichibi ngasinye lifaka ukubanjiswa komhlaba nangaphansi komhlaba. Indawo etholakala kuyo yonke indawo iyingxenye yomhlaba okuphuma kuwo amanzi agela ohlelweni lomfula olunikezwe noma umfula othize. Ukubanjwa okungaphansi komhlaba kwakhiwa ngumugqa wamatshe okudonsela okuphuma kuwo amanzi angena ngaphakathi kwinethiwekhi yomfula. Ngokwesimo esejwayelekile, ukubanjwa okungaphezulu komhlaba nangaphansi komhlaba akuhambelani. Kepha kusukela ekunqumeni komngcele wokubanjwa komhlaba ngaphansi komhlaba kunzima kakhulu, ukuphela kwendawo ethathwa njengobukhulu bomgodi womfula.

Amaphutha aqhamukayo ngenxa yokuchazwa kwemibandela yobukhulu beshishi nokubanjwa komhlaba kungabonakala kuphela emifuleni nasemachibini amancanyana, kanye nasemifuleni emikhulu egeleza ngaphansi kwezimo zomhlaba, ukuhlinzeka ngokushintshaniswa kwamanzi okuhle phakathi kwezindawo ezingomakhelwane (ngokwesibonelo, ikarst). Umngcele ophakathi kwezigxobo zamanzi okugcina udlula emanzini.

Amachibi ahlukaniswe ngamanzi okugcwala indle nawamanzi. Izindawo zokubaleka zangaphakathi kwezwekazi, ezingenakho ukuxhumana ngamabhishi asemifuleni nolwandle, zibizwa ngokuthi azingakhishwa; ukubukeka nobukhulu bezindawo ezihlanzekile kuhlukile kakhulu futhi kuya ngesimo sendawo, isimo sendawo, kanye nokwakheka kwendawo. Izikweletu zomfula zinemithombo yazo emincane, okuphelele kuyindawo yomgodi omkhulu womfula.

Imithombo emikhulu yomhlaba

Impendulo

Uhlelo lomfula - iqoqo lemifula ethulula amanzi esiteshini esisodwa esijwayelekile olwandle, echibini noma komunye umzimba wamanzi.

ISITOLOIZIMBALI - (Basin) indawo yomhlaba okuvela kuyo umfula wonke amazulu owondlayo ayaqoqwa,

I-waterhed umugqa we-topographic onemibandela ebusweni bomhlaba ohlukanisa imithombo (yemithombo) yemifula emibili noma ngaphezulu, amachibi, izilwandle noma izilwandle, ukuqondisa ukuhamba kwezulu.

Umcengezi womfula

INDAWO YOKUGULA. Ingxenye yomhlaba engaphezulu evala umfudlana noma umzimba wamanzi anemikhawulo engaphansi futhi ifaka indawo eyaziwayo lapho kuvela khona ukugeleza kulo msele noma umzimba wamanzi.

Amabhishi emifula ahlukene ngobukhulu nangesimo. Isici esikhulu se-morphometric yesikejana somfula yindawo yaso, esivame ukuvezwa ngamakhilomitha skwele.

Ezingeni lomgodi womfula, inhlabathi ezigeziwe ziyizidakwa ezithwalwa yimifula. Ukwanda kokubaleka kwendle kuholela ekubambeni phansi kwemithombo, imisele, izinhlelo zokunisela kanye nemizila yokuthumela. Ngokwezimo zase-US, kulinganiselwa ukuthi lokhu kubangela ukulimala okukhulu kwezomnotho kunokuncipha kwenhlabathi ngenxa yokuguguleka kwenhlabathi.

Izinsizakusebenza ezibalulekile zezilwane ezincelisayo zasolwandle kanye nenqwaba yezinhlobo zezinhlanzi ezibalulekile zigxiliswe olwandle nasemifuleni yaseYakutia. Ezindaweni ezingaphansi kwe-arctic ne-arctic, imvelo yasemanzini isathinteka kancanyana ngenxa yethonya le-anthropogenic - qhathanisa nayo yonke i-Yakutia. Kodwa-ke, umthetho ongaphelele wezemvelo, ulwazi olungelona iqiniso lwesimo samanje sabantu abaningi be-cetaceans, i-pinnipeds nezinhlanzi kuholela eqinisweni lokuthi isu lokudoba alinqunywa ngokuxosha okuphathelene nokuzalwa, kepha yizinto zomnotho. Isifiso sokwandisa inzuzo, futhi ngesikhathi esifushane, kuholela ekunciphiseni isitoko sezilwane futhi sibeke ezinye zezinto zabo onqenqemeni lokuqothuka.

Ukufakwa kwamadolobha endaweni eyisisekelo somfula, okokuqala, ukwenza lula (ukuqondisa iziteshi, ukulahleka kwezintela ezincane, ukucekelwa phansi kwezikhukhula, amachibi nezintokazi ezindala). Isakhiwo semvelo somfula esiyinkimbinkimbi siphenduka uhlelo olulula lobuchwepheshe, futhi idolobha kufanele lenze yonke imisebenzi yemvelo yomfula. Idolobha liya ngokuya lingenisa amanzi, lokhu kuhambisana nokwanda kwezinga lamanzi aphansi komhlaba kanye nezikhukhula (ngenxa yokuvuza) kwezindawo ezisezindaweni zasemadolobheni. Ukushushumbiswa kwedolobha kwendawo yomfula kubhubhisa amandla alo okukhiqiza imithombo yamanzi, ngakho-ke leli dolobha lithuthukisa izisekelo zomfula ezintsha njalo. Njengamanje, ukwanda kwamanzi emadolobheni kuholele ekubumbaneni kwemifula yase-Europe yesikebhe se-Kama-Volga nemifula yase-Asia yesikebhe i-Irtysh-Ob.

Lapho kunqunywa (¿¡(Р) ngezigaba zemisele yemifula, ukungaboni ngaso linye kokushintshashintsha kokuqukethwe kwamanzi omfula ngaphezu kwensimu ngokuya ngama-hydrographs wonyaka wekhalenda, okuqukethwe kwamanzi okuthi kulezi zingxenye eziphambili kusondele kokudingekayo, kuyabhekwa.

Ukusebenza kokuphathwa kwezigodi zomfula ezihlanganisiwe kuncike emandleni wokuthola ulwazi oludingekayo ekwenzeni izinqumo, okufanele futhi lube olubanzi, luhlangabezane nezidingo zendlela yokuphilisana kwendalo, futhi ngezinga elikhulu kubhekwe ubuningi bokusebenza kokuphathwa kwemvelo ngokujwayelekile kanye nokusetshenziswa kwamanzi ikakhulukazi. Imininingwane yokuphathwa kwezigxobo zomfula ezihlanganisiwe ingatholakala emithonjeni eyinhloko, kufaka phakathi izinhlelo zokuqapha, ukubala nokubikezela kanye namamodeli nezinhlelo zesazi, kanye neminye imithombo, isibonelo, imininingwane equkethe imininingwane yezibalo noma yokuphatha. Njengokulindelekile, kwinqubo yokwenza izinqumo kungakuhle ukuthi usebenzise amandla olwazi kuyo yonke le mithombo. Ngasikhathi sinye, kufanele kuqashelwe ukuthi umthombo oyinhloko wedatha yenhloso nolwazi ngesimo sendalo yemvelo, izinto zemvelo nezemvelo-ezobuchwepheshe, imithombo yethonya le-anthropogenic kuzo iyindlela ehambelana nokuqapha yemvelo.

Kodwa-ke, izimo zemvelo zezigodi zemifula emincane zihlukahlukene kakhulu futhi, ngakho-ke, ezimeni zeziteshi zokulinganisela amanzi, akunakwenzeka ukumboza zonke izinto zomhlaba ngokubuka ukugeleza. Kulokhu, kuyadingeka ukuhlela insimu yomgodi womfula ngezigaba eziningana zezimpawu ezinomthelela omkhulu ekuhambeni komfula. Izinhlobo ezinhlanu noma izinto zasendaweni zahlukaniswa esiteshini saseMoscow Region-Balance Station, ezihluke ngohlobo lwenhlabathi nezitshalo, futhi ngenxa yalokho ukugeleza kwamanzi ancibilikayo: 1 - ihlathi elixubekile kuLoam, 2 - ihlathi elixubekile kulomhlaba onesihlabathi, izindawo ezi-3 ezingenamhlaba ezinamatshe omhlaba , 4 - Izindawo ezingenamsebenzi ezinesihlabathi esinenhlabathi enamaswidi kanye ne-5 - inethiwekhi yesiteshi enezindawo ezingcwengekile zezindawo zokubanjwa eziseduze kwaso (izikhukhula, indawo emithambeka). Zonke izinhlobo zomhlaba zinikezwa ngezilinganiso eziqondile, kufaka phakathi i-runoff. Okuhlukile kuwuhlobo 5, lapho ukugeleza kwesikhukhula kunqunywa khona ngokubalwa kwezindawo zokugcina iqhwa ngaphambi kokuqala kokuqala kweqhwa, ukuphefumula kuze kube sekupheleni kwezikhukhula kanye nokuqina okuqhubekayo okungu-0,9.

Ithonya eliqondile lezindawo eziwela umfula ngokugobhoza komfula lincane, ngenxa yokuthi indima yamakhono okufakwa kokungena kwenhlabathi ivinjiwe ukwanda noma ukwehla kwezinga lokuphanjaniswa kwamanzi ngaphezu kobuso bomhlaba, ngokuya ngale nto. Impumuzo inomthelela omkhulu ezintweni ngazinye zamabhalansi wamanzi asezingeni lomfula: ukuhanjiswa kwemvula, ukufakwa komswakama enhlabathini, kanye nokuhwamuka. Leli thonya losizo liziveza ngokuhlukile ngokuya ngosayizi wamafomu alo. Kubaluleke kakhulu ezintabeni, lapho imvula yonyaka inyuka kanye nokuphakama komhlaba, izinga lokushisa lomoya liyancipha, okuholela ekuncipheni kokuhwamuka komoya futhi, ngenxa yalokho, ukwanda kokuphindaphindeka. Njengomthetho, isilinganiso sokuhanjiswa kwezulu okuqinile sikhuphuka ngokuphakama, okuholela ekwandeni kokuqina kokuphindaphindeka, futhi, ngenxa yalokho, inani lokubaleka, kanye noshintsho olubalulekile embusweni wamanzi, iningi lishiwo emifuleni esezintabeni eziphakeme enomsoco we-glacial.

V.E. UVodogretsky ukholelwa ukuthi "ezindaweni ezincane kakhulu zemifula ezindaweni ezise-steppe nasezindaweni ezinamahlathi ezingasebenzisi amanzi angaphansi komhlaba, i-runoffline yaphansi iyancipha kakhulu phakathi kwezindlela zokugibela kabusha komhlaba, okuholela ekunciphiseni okufanayo kokuphindukuza okuphelele - kuze kufike ku-20 -40%." N.I. UKoronkevich, ngenxa yocwaningo lwakhe, uphetha ngokuthi ukwehla kwezinga lokuphuma emhlabeni olimekayo kulinganiselwa kuma-40%. Ngaphezu kwalokho, emkhakheni wenhlabathi enesoddy-podzolic, ukuncipha kokuphinda kube ngu-10-20%, endaweni yezinhlabathi ezigrey zehlathi, ezi-codzozems ezi-podzolised and leached, 20- 40%, endaweni ejwayelekile, ejwayelekile, naseningizimu yama-chernozems, ama-25-60%, endaweni emnyama enesihlabathi. 65 - 90%.

Uma sicabanga ukuthi lelo zinga liyisilinganiso sokuqukethwe komswakama echibini lomfula iLake. I-Hanka, bese i-equation (3.10.1) ichaza amandla alo mswakama ngesikhathi sokubuka. Siphawula nokuthi amazinga aphansi nangaphezulu awazinzile mayelana nokuphazamiseka okuningana, futhi lesi sici esibalulekile sokushintshashintsha kokuqukethwe komswakama echibini lomfula iLake. UHanka uchazwa ngokuba khona kwezigaba zamanzi aphansi nezamanzi aphezulu.

Kusatshalaliswe kabanzi eYurophu empumalanga yePyrenees nasenyakatho ye-Alps - ezindaweni ezingasemifuleni nasezindaweni ezinqunyelwe eNyakatho, iBaltic, White (kufinyelela futhi kufaka phakathi i-Pechora), i-Aegean, iBlack, i-Azov, iCaspian kanye ne-Aral sea. Iqhakanjiswe kabanzi ngaphandle kwebanga layo lemvelo, kufaka phakathi i-Urals, ezindaweni ezigcina amanzi nasezichibini ze-Irtysh nase-Ob, nasezindongeni zaseBaikal-Angarsk (Kupchinsky, 1987). Ucwaningo lokwehluka kwezimpawu eziningi ze-morphological zohlobo lwebhulamu kulo lonke uhla lukhombisa ukuthi umehluko phakathi kokuvamile nokwasempumalanga (A. brama orientalis Berg, 1949 kusuka kuzisekelo zemifula yeCaspian ne-Aral Sea), osebenze njengesisekelo sokuhlukaniswa kwalezi zindawo zokugcina ezingafani nhlobo, ziyasulwa, kanye nokwehluka kwezinhlobo ngokuphelele kungokwemvelo, ngokwesimo sendawo, kuhlobene nobudala kanye nezocansi ngokwemvelo (Morozova, 1952, Shaposhnikova, 1964, Mitrofanov et al., 1988). Ukuhlaziywa kokuhlukahluka kwe-intra- kanye ne-inclopulation kwaveza ukuba khona kwamaqembu ayisikhombisa ezindawo zabantu: I-Pechora, inyakatho-mpumalanga, inyakatho-ntshonalanga, i-Belozersky, i-Rybinsk, maphakathi ne-Aral-Caspian (Izyumov, 1987). Yonke indawo enye yezinhlobo ezibaluleke kakhulu zentengiso yezinhlanzi ze-carp. Imifula eminingi imelelwa amafomu okuhlala nokuhlala.

Njengesibonelo sokungcoliswa kwamanzi kwamanzi ezigodini ezincane zemifula, cabanga ngesisekelo somfula. IMoscow, lapho okubhekwe khona kombuso kwenziwa ngezigaba ezine: ingxenye engenhla yesikebhe, okuyingxenye yesikebhe, okucishe kukhiphe ngokuphelele ukuhlangana kwedolobha laseMoscow, kanye nelitshe lokugcina, elivumela umuntu ukuba abonise wonke umgexo. Yonke indawo emfuleni. EMoscow nezinsizakusebenza zayo, okuqukethwe kukawoyela kuphezulu kune-MPC (kuze kube izikhathi ezingama-20): ezansi komfula kukhona ukwanda kancane kancane kokuqukethwe kwemikhiqizo kawoyela, okufika lapho kuphuma kakhulu kusuka eMoscow (0,2 mg / l), futhi ngisho nangaphansi, ngasemfuleni, kokuqukethwe kwemikhiqizo kawoyela. okuncane, okusobala, okuhambisana nezinqubo zokuzihlanza. Sekukonke, kuze kube esigidini esisodwa kukhishwa insimu yaseRussia enamanzi angaphezulu (asemfuleni) ngonyaka.t yemikhiqizo kaphethiloli, eseleyo ngemuva kokuhlanzeka nokuzihlanza kwebhayoloji. Okungenani izikhathi ezi-5 zamafutha angakanani (cishe amathani ayizigidi ezine) Cishe ingxenye yengxenye yalesi siga ingena emifuleni, yonke eminye ihlala ngaphezulu, ingcolisa inhlabathi namanzi angaphansi komhlaba. Vele, kulokhu, ingxenye ebalulekile yemikhiqizo yamafutha i-oxidised, futhi ngenxa yalokho, cishe i-0,5% lokukhiqizwa kawoyela kulo lonke elaseRussia lingena olwandle nasolwandle.

Isigaba sokuqala ukwakheka kobume bendawo yensimu efundwayo nokukhethwa komgodi omncane womfula njengommeleli wohlobo oluthile lwendawo. Kulesi sigaba, kubalulekile ukuthola yonke imininingwane engaba khona engxenyeni yomhlaba yensimu ekhethiwe ngokuqhathanisa amamephu ahlukahlukene: i-topographic, geological, Quaternary sediments, kanye nokujula kwamanzi asemhlabeni.

Cabanga ngokulungiswa kwemali esele yendawo etholakala kubheseni lomunye wemifula. Abasebenzisi bamanzi abaphambili kuwo ngukuhlinzekwa kwamanzi embonini kanye nasemphakathini, izithombo zamandla ezishisayo, ukunisela, ukuhambisa kanye nokunakekela ezempilo. Izinsizakusebenza zamanzi asesigodini somfula zanele ukwanelisa izahlulelo zangaphakathi zabasebenzisi bamanzi ngaphandle kokudlulisela amanzi kusuka ezimbizeni zemifula yangomakhelwane.

I-Seregin S. Ya. Imodeli nezindlela zokubikezela izinguquko ezimweni zemvelo endaweni yezigodi zemifula // Izv. I-USSR Academy of Science.

Onyakeni wamanje, ama-VBB asebenzayo athuthukisa izimbiza zomfula ezicindezelwe ukusetshenziswa kwamanzi ukuze kusatshalaliswe ngempumelelo izinsiza zamanzi ezilindelekile phakathi kwemikhakha yezomnotho kazwelonke noma yendawo.

Isitatimende senkinga [37, 81]. Njengoba ukusetshenziswa kwezindawo zamanzi endawo kukhuphuka, ubungozi bokwehla komgodi womfula kanye nokuwohloka kwabo ezinhlelweni ezilahlekelwa ngamanzi, izindawo zokudoba kanye nokubaluleka kwendawo. Ukubuyiselwa kwabo kudinga izindleko ezinkulu, futhi imvamisa akunakwenzeka. Umonakalo omkhulu osindayo futhi ongenakulungiswa ungabangelwa imifula emincane - izixhumanisi ezidingekayo zenethiwekhi yomfula nezinto ezibalulekile zokudonsa. Muva nje, imifula emincane iya ngokuya inyamalala ngenxa yentuthuko enkulu yokubanjwa kanye nokuphulwa kwezindawo zemvelo zokudonswa kwemvelo: ixhaphozi - umfula, ihlathi - umfula, njll.

Kuyaziwa ukuthi kungakuhle ukuthi uhlele izindlela zokuvikela amanzi hhayi esifundeni sokuphatha kuphela, kepha kulo lonke ugcobho lomfula (i-USA, iBelgium, iJalimane, iNgilandi, njll.). Ngakho-ke, umgodi womfula ubhekwa njengawo wonke. Ukuphathwa okuphakathi kwezindawo zemifula kusiza ukunciphisa ukungcoliswa kwezidumbu zamanzi.

Njengezindawo ezinkulu kakhulu zokwakheka komhlaba okuhamba ngaphansi komhlaba, izindlela ezinjengamanzi angaphansi komhlaba ezinjengezesekeli zobuciko, izindawo eziboshwe ezintabeni nezihlangu zingathathwa. Izindawo ezilinganiselwe ze-oda elilandelayo zingaba yizindawo zokusatshalaliswa kwe-akhwifa eyodwa noma enye ebhekwayo, kufaka phakathi izindawo zayo zokuphaka, zokubaleka kanye nokukhishwa. Ezifundweni ezinemininingwane eminingi, izindawo zemiyalo ephansi ziyahlukaniswa, isibonelo, izikejana zemifula noma izingxenye zayo, izindawo zokuthuthukiswa kwamanzi aphansi ezinhlobo ezahlukahlukene (amanzi we-karst massifs, amadiphozi we-alluvial kanye namathafa e-fluvioglacial), njll. Imigomo yokushintshwa kwensimu ngokuya ngemibandela yokwakhiwa kwemithombo yemvelo yasemanzini ibhekwa. emisebenzini yeV.A. UVsevolozhsky no-IF. UFidelli (Vsevolozhsky, Fidelly, 1977).

Uhlangothi oluhle kakhulu ezinhlelweni zokuhlela kabusha ukuphathwa kwamanzi ukuqondiswa komgomo wesisekelo. Izimbiza zomfula ziyimvelo evaliwe impela. Ukusuka kuleli phuzu, izinsiza zamanzi ngandlela thile zisesimweni esihle, esikhethekile kwizakhiwo zemvelo. Eqinisweni, ziyisici esakha uhlelo esihlanganisa ukubonisa okuhlukahlukene kokuphila kwezinto eziphilayo endaweni leyo. Umgomo wesisekelo ulungile ngoba wethula isici sendawo yezindlela zokulawulwa kwemvelo futhi usinikeza umsindo okhethekile [32, 33]. Ingabe kuyamangaza ngemuva kwalokho ukuthi emisebenzini yomhlaba wonke kunomkhuba wokuhlanganisa imizimba yokuphatha i-OS kanye nezindikimba zokulawulwa kwamanzi. Lezi zinhlaka eziyinkimbinkimbi zenziwe, ngokwesibonelo, eHungary (Ministry of Environment and Management Management) nakwamanye amazwe. Indlela esekwe esisekelweni sokuphatha izinhlelo zamanzi namuhla ayisajwayelekile. Emazweni amaningi, izakhiwo zokuphathwa kwamanzi kwezigodi ezinkulu zemifula zamukelwa njengento eyinhloko yokulawulwa kokukhiqiza: ePoland, kwabiwa eziyi-7, e-UK - 10, China - 7, eJalimane - 5.

Izikhukhula zemvula zibizwa ngokuthi ukukhula kwesikhashana kanye nokwenyuka okusheshayo kwamazinga nokwanda kokuphuma kwamanzi ngaphansi kwethonya lezimvula eziwela emgodini womfula kanye nokwehla kwazo ngokulinganayo ngokushesha. Isikhathi esifushane sezikhukhula, inani elincane lokuqhuma kuqhathaniswa nezikhukhula, futhi izikhathi ezihlukile zokuhamba konyaka phakathi komfula okufanayo kwenza umehluko phakathi kwezikhukhula nezikhukhula.

Ake sibukeze kafushane izindlela ezivame kakhulu zokuhlola izifunda zemithombo yasemanzini engaphansi komhlaba. Umnyombo waso ukubheka izimo ezithile ze-hydrogeological zezinsika zemifula kanye namaphethini wokuhamba ngaphansi komhlaba ungena emfuleni usuka kuzo zonke izihlambi zamanzi ezindawo ezigeleza amanzi. Umbuso namandla ashukumisayo okuhamba ngaphansi komhlaba ukuya emifuleni esuka kumanzi ngamanye adonswa yinethiwekhi yomfula kunqunywa yizimo zokwenzeka kanye nokunikezwa kwamanzi angaphansi komhlaba nobungcweti kuleli bheshi lomfula noma ingxenye yalo kanye nesikhundla sokukhipha indawo maqondana nomngcele womfula. Ezimweni lapho amanzana amanzonzo aba nokuxhumeka kwe-hydraulic nomfula futhi ngesikhathi sesikhukhula sentwasahlobo kunokukhishwa kwamanzi asemhlabathini, okuvame kakhulu emifuleni eminingi ephansi, ukwahlukaniswa komfula kugeleza i-hydrograph emanzini angaphezulu nangaphansi kwezakhi zangaphansi komhlaba kuyenziwa kucatshangelwa izinqubo zokulawulwa kogu lokugeleza komhlaba (i-Kudelin, 1960).

Ukuqinisa ukucindezelwa kwamanzi. Izinsizakusebenza zamanzi zisatshalaliswa ngokungalingani ezweni lonke: 90% yokugeleza okuphelele minyaka yonke kwehlela emgodini we-Arctic kanye nePacific Oceans, futhi okungaphansi kwama-8% kubhasikidi lweCaspian ne-Azov Seas, lapho kuhlala khona abantu baseRussia abangaphezulu kwamaphesenti angama-80 namandla ayo amakhulu ezolimo nawezolimo. . Ngokuvamile, ukukhishwa kwamanzi okuphelele kwezidingo zasendlini kuyinto encane - ama-3% okujwayelekile okuhamba isikhathi eside komfula. Kodwa-ke, endaweni eseVolga, kubalwa ama-33% okukhishwa kwamanzi ezweni lonke, futhi ngenani lemigodi emincane yemifula, isilinganiso samanzi okugeleza njalo ngonyaka sidlula inani lemvelo elivumelekile lokuhoxisa (Don - 64%, Terek - 68, Kuban - 80%, njll.). Eningizimu yensimu yaseYurophu yaseRussia, cishe yonke imithombo yamanzi ibandakanyeka emsebenzini wezomnotho wezwe. Ngisho nasezigodini zemifula zama-Urals, uTobol no-Ishim, ukungezwani komnotho emanzini kuye kwaba yinto ethile eyehlisa ukuthuthuka komnotho wezwe.

Muva nje, emisebenzini eminingana eyenziwa ngabakwa-geomorphologists, sithola isiqinisekiso sokuba semthethweni kwalesi sikhundla. Ngakho-ke, Yu.G. USimonov, ngokusekelwe ocwaningweni lwezici zesizinda semifula eTransbaikalia naseningizimu yeMpumalanga Ekude, uphetha ngokuthi njengoba ukuhleleka kwesikebhe kukhula, ithonya lezinto zasendaweni zemithambeka ene-high-order nemifudlana yamanzi ngezinqubo zesiteshi iyancipha. Lesi sikhundla, ngokusho kwe-Yu.G. USimonov, uqinisekisa ukuba semthethweni kwe "umthetho wokuhlobene kwezici." Ukubukwa okufanayo kutholakala emisebenzini ye-O.A. Badger, M. Levantova nabanye.

Lesi sigaba sinikezelwe kunqubo yokusebenzisa amamodeli athunyelwe ngaphambili maqondana nemibandela yomfula. Volga. Ukuhlelwa kwemisebenzi yokuvikela amanzi ezigodini ezinkulu zomfula ezinjengeVolzhsky kufaka phakathi izikhundla ezine.

Ngokuya ngezinga lokuhluka kwezinkomba zezinombolo zabantu kanye nenani lesibalo sabantu bendawo enikeziwe uma kuqhathaniswa nesifunda okulawulwayo noma amanani aphakathi kwesisekelo somfula noma izwe lilonke, kuyisiko ukwahlukanisa izigaba ezi-4-5. Isibonelo, isimo sezokwelapha nezemvelo ezifundeni (noma izindawo zokuhlala) sehlukaniswe izigaba ezi-5: 1 - ngokwenelekayo, 2 - okucindezela kakhulu, 3 - okucindezela kakhulu, 4 - okubucayi noma okuphuthumayo, okuyi-5 - inhlekelele noma isimo senhlekelele yemvelo (iPinigin, 1993).

I-sturgeon yaseSiberia ingukuphela kwezinhlanzi eSiberia; ngaphezu kwezindawo zokugcina izinto zaseSiberia, ayitholakali ndawo. I-sturgeon yaseSiberia iyindlela yokuhlala, ifomu eliyinxenye yesikhala. Yakha imihlambi yasekhaya emachibini nasezigodini ezingenhla zemisele yemifula. Ihlala emigodini yayo yonke imifula emikhulu yaseSiberia kusuka e-Ob entshonalanga kuya eKolyma empumalanga. Ihlala eLake Baikal, ezindebeni ze-Obskaya, Tazovskaya, Yenisei Gulf. Enyakatho, ububanzi bayo bufinyelela kude kakhulu kwe-Arctic Circle - kuze kufike ku-74 ° N. I-sturgeon yaseSiberia ayingeni olwandle. Yonke imjikelezo yokuphila kwayo yenzeka emanzini amasha, futhi kutholakala kuphela izinsalela zenhlanzi ezingatholakali ezinosawoti ongenamandla (kuze kufinyelele ku-8% o) amasayithi ezinkangala. Isatshalaliswa kulo lonke i-Ob (3680 km), e-Irtysh - ukuya eLake Zaysan nangaphezulu eduze kweBlack Irtysh kuya ekuchitheni komfula i-Kren, e-Yenisei ngaphambi komthethonqubo - ukusuka emlonyeni kuya ku-3200 km, manje ikakhulukazi kuyiwe eKhrasnoyarsk, e-Lena - kuya ku-3300 km EKolyma akwanele, kune-sturgeon e-Alasey, Indigirka naseYana. Emifuleni yeSiberia, yakha ukugxila okuphezulu kakhulu ezindaweni ezise-delta, okuyizindawo eziphambili zokudla kwayo.

Ukuntuleka kwezimfanelo zemibono yezifundo ezinje emifuleni emincane, ukwephulwa komgomo wokubumbana kwezinhlaka zezemvelo nezomnotho zamandla emvelo ngesikhathi sokuxhashazwa kwezinsizakusebenza zemvelo zamachibi abo kuholele ekuqubukeni kwemiphumela emibi ehlukahlukene. Ukuntuleka kwesimo sezulu esithembekile sokuthuthuka kwesimo emifuleni emincane kuholele ekuvinjelweni kwamanzi kanye nosawoti wezindawo, ukwehla komkhiqizo wazo, nokungcoliswa kwamanzi. Isimo sokuqala ekubikezelweni kwemvelo kwesimo nokuphathwa kwemvelo kokulawulwa emiseleni encane yemifula ukuthola indlela efanelekile yesakhiwo semvelo yezinhlobo ngazinye zamabhansi, ubudlelwano phakathi kwezinto zaso neqhaza lazo ekusebenzeni kohlelo lwe-ecosystem luphelele. Kunesidingo, okokuqala, sokwabiwa kwezindawo zokubhekelwa emfuleni kanye nokulondolozwa kwazo, futhi okwesibili, ngocwaningo olunzulu lwamaphethini okwakhiwa kwezindawo ezisebenza ngaphansi kwazo, umbuso we-hydrobiological, ukuzimisela kokukhiqiza, indlela yokufaka nokuziphatha kokungcola, kanye nokuqapha emifuleni evikelekile. Imiphumela yocwaningo olunjalo ingasebenza njengesisekelo sokubikezela izinguquko ezimisweni semvelo zamachibi emifula [185, 189, 212, 234].

Kwezinye izimo, ukusetshenziswa kwezindlela ezicatshangelwe kunzima noma akunakwenzeka ngenxa yezici ezithile zezifunda ngazinye - ukuthuthukiswa okubalulekile kokunisela okwenziwa ngemvelo, okuhlanekezela izimo zemvelo zokuhamba kwamanzi omfula kanye nokunikezwa kwamanzi angaphansi komhlaba, ukulawulwa kokuphuma komfula, ukungaboni ngasolinye okukhulu phakathi kwemigwaqo engaphansi komhlaba nangaphansi komhlaba ngenxa yezimo ezibucayi zezimo zamanzi ezigodini zemifula nezinye izizathu. Kubaluleke kakhulu ukukhumbula umthetho wokufakelwa kokugeleza kwemifula, okuqeda cishe indlela yokusebenzisa indlela ye-hydrological-hydro-geological yokwehlukanisa amanzi ama-hydrographs ekuhlolweni kwesifunda kokuhamba kwamanzi omhlaba nemithombo yemvelo yasemhlabeni. Ngakho-ke, indlela yokuhlukanisa izinhlayiya zemifula inganconyelwa imisele emincane yemifula ezimweni zemvelo. Emifuleni elawulwayo, phambi kochungechunge olude lokubona, ukulinganisa ama-hydrographs, umuntu kufanele asebenzise idatha yezilinganiso zokuphonsa emfuleni ngaphambi kokuqala komthethonqubo wokugeleza. Kwezinye izimo, ezingxenyeni zomfula ezingalawulwa, indlela yokubala ukugeleza komhlaba ngaphansi kwezinguquko ezenzeka ekuphanjeni kokuhamba okuphansi kungasebenza.

Izimo zokungqubuzana okukhulu ikakhulu ziqhamuka ngenxa yokwakhiwa kanye nokusebenza kwezikhungo zamanzi. Lokhu kungenxa yokuthi cishe isigamu semifula emikhulu yomhlaba ihlukene phakathi. Ezigodini zemifula eziphakathi kwezingu-216, ezi-155 zingezamazwe amabili, ezingama-36 kuye kwezithathu, ezingama-25 zilawulwa emazweni amane kuya kwayi-12. Emifuleni emikhulu engu-25 eYurophu, engu-13 ayihlukene phakathi. Abasebenzisi bamanzi bamazwe asezindaweni eziphansi zemifula bathola umonakalo omkhulu ngenxa yokushoda kanye nokungcoliswa kwemithombo yamanzi [52 - 55].

Iphothifoliyo yaseBhange yemiklamo yezemvelo iyanda, kufaka phakathi amaphrojekthi “aluhlaza” okuhloswe ngawo ukwenza ngcono ukuphathwa kwemithombo yezemvelo (ukuphathwa kwamahlathi nokugcinwa kwemvelo, ukuphathwa komhlaba nokuvuselelwa kwezigodi zemifula kanye nokuphathwa kwamanzi, njll., Brown) okuhlose ukunciphisa ukungcoliswa kanye nokwenza ngcono imvelo yasemadolobheni, kanye namaphrojekthi “wezikhungo”, omsebenzi wawo ukuqinisa izikhungo zemvelo. Amaphrojekthi wemvelo axhaswa ngemali yibhange asebenza emazweni angama-62. IBrazil, China, India, Indonesia, Korea, neMexico ngababolekisi abakhulu kakhulu kumaphrojekthi ezemvelo.

Kwezinye izimo, ukunakwa kwakudonswa emiphumeleni ebonakalayo ebangelwe ama-detergents, asanda kusetshenziswa kabanzi emazweni amaningi ngezinhloso zasekhaya, zohwebo nezimboni. Ngakho-ke, inani eliphelele lezinto ezinjalo ezigodini ezinkulu zomfula lenyuka "kanye nama-milligram ambalwa ngelitha, ikakhulukazi ngenxa yesomiso. Abasunguli batholakala emanzini okuphuza atholakala kulezi zinhlelo zamanzi. Enye yezinkinga ezivelayo ngenxa yokuba khona kwama-detergents emanzini emigodini emikhulu yomfula inkinga yegwebu. EJalimane, umfula iNecker uthole okudumazayo ngenxa yokungcoliswa kwamanzi awo ngogwebu. Ngenxa yezinhlobonhlobo zokuhlanzisisa ezitholakala emakethe, okwamanje akukho imininingwane enganele ngezakhiwo zabo ezilimazayo; ucwaningo lwenziwe kuphela ukuthola ubunikazi bama-radical obuthile bezakhi ezisebenza ngaphezulu.

Uhlobo lwamanzi ahlanzekile, atholakala ngezikhathi ezithile ezindaweni ezihlala olwandle ezinqenqemeni (i-Andriyashev, 1954). Kusakazwa kabanzi emizimbeni yamanzi yaseYurophu. Ihlala kuyo yonke ingxenye yaseYurophu yeRussia, ngaphandle kwemifula yeKola Peninsula (Berg, 19496, Sidorov, 1974). Ukuchazwa kwalolu hlobo lwe-sculpin oluvela eNtshonalanga Siberia kusuka emigodini yemifula i-Irtysh neKatun (Chaban, Bogdanov, 1960, Gundrizer, 1966a, Fedorova, 1992) kuyaphikiswa ngemininingwane yamuva nje. Isakhiwo se-intraspecific asifundiswanga kahle. Mhlawumbe i-subspecies ekhethekile ye-S. gobio koshewnikowi Gratzianov ihlala eRussia, ngo-1907 iyisazi saseRussia. Ubuningi balezi zinhlobo yonke indawo buyancipha ngenxa yokungcoliswa kwezindawo zemifula. Ifakiwe ohlwini lwezinhlanzi ezingandile eYurophu naseNcwadini Ebomvu yeRSFSR futhi ihlelwe ukuthi ifakwe kwiBhuku elibomvu laseRussia.

Kulokhu okushiwoyo, kulandela ukuthi ukuhlola umthelela wokushintshwa kwesimo sezulu emithonjeni yamanzi nokusetshenziswa kwawo akuyona inkinga yobunjiniyela kuphela ehambisana nokukhethwa kwamaphethimitha we-HCS afanele. Kudinga ukucutshungulwa okujulile kwezinhlelo zemvelo nezomnotho ezixhumene ezingeni lezithambeka zemifula nokuseshwa kwezixazululo ezihlanganisiwe, ngokuvamile ezingekho emthethweni. Indlela yokucwaninga iyithuluzi elenza izinqumo elivumela umuntu ukuthi acabangele zombili amathemba wesikhathi eside wokushintshwa kwesimo sezulu kanye nokuhlukahluka kwesikhashana kwezinto ezithile zezulu, okuyinto, ewusizo kochwepheshe bephrofayili ehambisanayo.

Isimo esijwayelekile se-hydrometric yokuqukethwe kwamanzi omfula izinga lokugeleza (isilinganiso sokugeleza kwesikhathi eside ngo-m? / S), kubalwa ngesisekelo sokubonwa kwangempela emashumini ambalwa eminyaka.Kodwa-ke, ukubukwa okunjalo okuhlala isikhathi eside akutholakali ngaso sonke isikhathi, futhi ezimweni ezinjalo, i-hydrology yezindawo eziningi ezifundwe emfuleni itholwa ngendlela esondele, ngokufana nemifula efundwayo, esezimeni ezifanayo ze-geophysical.

Ukuhlaziywa kwezixazululo ezitholakele zemiphumela yokushintsha kwesimo sezulu ezinqubweni zokuguguleka kokuqukethwe kanye nokuqukethwe kwe-nitrogen, phosphorus, njll. Enhlabathini kubonise ukuthi izinqubo zokuguguleka kokutholwayo zingaba kakhulu. Lokhu kusho ukuthi esimweni sokushintsha kwesimo sezulu, kudingeka ushintsho ekwakhiweni kwezindlela zokulawula ukugeleza kwemifula esezikhona ezindaweni ezitholakala emfuleni, ikakhulukazi, ngenhlangano yokuvikela inhlabathi nezindlela zokubuyiselwa komhlaba. Lokhu kudinga ukucutshungulwa okujulile kwezinhlelo zemvelo nezomnotho ezixhumene ezingeni lezithambeka zemifudlana ekuxazululeni izinkinga zokulawula ukuhamba kwemifula nokuphatha amadamu.

Ukuhlukaniswa kwemifula okuvame kakhulu. Ngokwalolu hlaka, imifula emifushane kune-100 km ihlukaniswa njengencane (iVodogretsky, 1990). Umqondo wemifula emincane uvame ukusetshenziswa kuyo yonke imifula yokubaluleka kwendawo kuphela futhi ukhombisa ithonya lezinto zasendaweni ezibonakalayo nezendawo endaweni enkulu yesifunda. Kumele kuqashelwe ukuthi indawo yezindawo zomfula izansi ezingaphansi kuka-2000 km2 ihambelana nemibandela yomngcele yokwakheka kokuhamba komhlaba ongaphansi. Njengomthetho, imifula enendawo enjalo imanzisa kuphela i-aquifer engenhla (i-Quaternary sediment). Lokhu, ngokusobala, kuchaza ubungozi bombuso wamanzi womfula omncane lapho isimo sendawo yaso sishintsha.

Amanzi- sesiphenduka enye yezinsizakusebenza ezihola phambili ezithinta ukwabiwa kwamandla akhiqizayo, futhi ukunikezwa kwamanzi konke- okungenani okubaluleke kakhulu ekuxazululeni izinkinga zenhlalo nomnotho, kufaka phakathi ukwakhiwa kwenani lemikhiqizo yezimboni nezolimo. Ngaphandle kokuchuma okubonakalayo, vele imali esele yokulawulwa kwamanzi (isilinganiso sezidingo zamanzi ekutholakaleni kwayo emthonjeni) emigodini eminingi yomfula incishiswa nengcindezi, ngenxa yezizathu ezilandelayo ezilandelayo: ® indawo yabathengi abasebenza kakhulu ngamanzi ayihambelani nokusatshalaliswa kwemithombo yamanzi - ezindaweni ezinokutholakala nezithuthukisiwe ngokomnotho. indawo etholakala eningizimu (izansi zoMnyama, i-Azov, iCaspian ne-Aral Seas), lapho ukukhiqizwa kwama-80% kwezimboni kanye nama-90% emikhiqizo yezolimo kugxiliwe, konke I-15-15% yokugeleza kwemifula, i-® izinhlelo ezinkulu zemifula yezindawo ezinabantu abaningi ezweni zivaliwe olwandle, ukuze kugcinwe imibuso eyamukelekile ye-hydrological kanye ne-hydrobiological okudingwa ngamanzi amasha emifudlana, lapho uhla lokugeleza okuhamba phakathi kwezikhathi luyenyuka njengoba uqhubekela endaweni eyomile, lapho inqwaba yabathengi igxiliwe amanzi. Ukusatshalaliswa kwe-runback okwenziwa minyaka yonke akuhambelani nokusatshalaliswa kwezidingo zamanzi zonyaka, kepha amathuba okuqhubeka kabusha. ukugibela kunqunyelwe, lokhu kungenxa yokuntuleka kwezimo ezibonisa ukuthambekela komhlaba okwakha amadamu amakhulu noma isikhukhula esingamukeleki somhlaba wezolimo, izinto ezibalulekile zezomnotho noma zesiko-zomlando, amadiphozi amaminerali, ® okunye okuqukethwe okuqinisekisiwe kwamanzi kumele kugcinwe emifuleni ngokukhishwa okukhethekile ukuze kuqinisekiswe izimo zokusakazwa kwezinhlanzi, ukunisela izikhukhula, ukugcina izimo zokuhlanzeka, ukusebenza kwezitshalo zamandla kagesi, ukudalwa kokuthumela ukujula, i-® kwezinye izikhathi ukukhishwa okujwayelekile kukhulu izikhathi eziningi kunezicelo zokuhoxiswa kwamanzi emifuleni.

Ngokusobala, iqhaza elibalulekile ekuguqukeni kwengxenye yomhlaba yomhlaba ophakeme we-lithosphere lidlalwa ngumsebenzi womuntu. Esigabeni esikwi-pedosphere kanye nezinsizakusebenza zomhlaba, sesivele saphawula ukuthi ukuguguleka nokuhamba komhlaba ngokuhamba komhlaba kukhule kakhulu ngenxa yokwanda kwezimpawu ze-anthropogenic. Ucwaningo lokudonsela phansi enkabeni yeLwandle Olumnyama luveze ukuthi ukuzama kokuphonsekela olwandle sekuphindeke kathathu kule minyaka engu-2000 edlule. Lesi simo sitholakala kubantu abaningi bomfula womhlaba abanomfutho obalulekile we-anthropogenic. Ukubaleka kwesolute nakho kukhuphukile. Ekugcineni, kuba nengxenye entsha, ebonakala kakhulu futhi esanda ngokushesha, isakhi se-anthropogenic se-lithosphere esele - ukushiswa kwamafutha amaminerali. Ngakho-ke, kuvela ukuthi umuntu udlala indima eholayo ekukhutshweni kanye nokususwa kwezinto eziqinile emhlabeni, futhi le ndima ingalinganiselwa ku-60% yenani eliphelele le-denudation.

IHydroecology yemifula emincane. IHydroecology, ngokusho kukaN.I. I-Alekseevsky, - insimu entsha yesayensi efunda imithetho yokuhlalisana okuphelele kwabantu, ezomnotho, izidalwa zamanzi, imvelo lapho ukuthuthukiswa kwamandla akhiqizwayo kwensimu kuhlanganiswa nokwethenjwa kokuphepha kwe-hydroecological, ukunciphisa ukulimala kwemvelo ezinqubweni ezimbi ze-hydrological. Kukhombisa indlela yangempela yokuphatha izinqubo zokulawulwa kwemvelo emiseleni yemifula, ukucinga ukutholakala okuvumelekile phakathi kwemisebenzi yokwenyusa izinga lomnotho nokugcina izimo zokuphila zilungile, ukuba khona kwemvelo yasemanzini neyasemhlabeni. Okubaluleke kakhulu ukucatshangelwa kwalezi zindlela emaphethelweni amancane emifula.

Ithoddler ye-Furbish's Endemic toddler (Pedicularis furbishiae) itholakala eceleni komfula. Maine endaweni evame ukukhukhula ngezikhathi ezithile [Maiges, 1990]. Izikhukhula zivame ukubhubhisa ezinye izitshalo, kepha ngasikhathi sinye zidala izindawo ezintsha ezisogwini ezifanele ukwakheka kwabantu abasha. Ukufundela inani labantu kunganikeza isithombe esiphelele sezinhlobo, ngoba inani elithile labantu liphila isikhashana. Futhi ukufakwa kwamamodeli kulokhu kungiyunithi efanelekile yokutadisha, futhi isigaxa somfula siyindawo efanelekile yokuphatha.

Ukwakhiwa kwenethiwekhi yamaphuzu okubuka emithonjeni yamanzi aseMoscow kwakususelwa ezindleleni nasemiphumeleni yokwakhiwa kokuphathwa kwamanzi. Izindlela zokwakhiwa kwamanzi zaqalwa ngo-1950 yisikhungo seHydroproject futhi zaqedwa ngeminyaka yo-1980 yisikhungo sezinkinga zamanzi i-USSR Academy of Science. Empeleni, ukubizwa kwe-USSR kwasungulwa yinhlangano yakwaSoyuzvodproekt. Isebenzisa umgomo wobubanzi besifunda futhi ngasikhathi sinye izimbiza zomfula zahlukaniswa izisekelo nezinye. Ngaphakathi kuzindawo ezinkulu, ezibandakanya umfula iVolga (wonke umgodi ongaphakathi kwemingcele yemvelo wamukelwa indawo yokulawulwa kwamanzi), ama-subareas ahlukaniswa ngaphakathi, abizwa nangokuthi yizindawo zokulawulwa kwamanzi. Izindawo zokulawulwa kwamanzi zikhawulelwe ezingxenyeni zokuhlala futhi zimelela izingxenye zomgodi omkhulu. Kuhlosiwe imigomo yokuhlaliswa kwabantu emfuleni onqamula imingcele yamariphabhulikhi noma izifunda zezomnotho (kwesinye isikhathi emingceleni yezifunda), ezingxenyeni zezakhiwo ezikhona futhi eziklanyiwe zamanzi emfuleni, emilonyeni yezinkokhiso ezinkulu, ekungeneni kwezinhlelo ezinkulu ezikhona noma eziklanyelwe, ezinhlelweni zokuhambisa amanzi kanye nezindawo zokuhambisa indle, ohlangothini lomfula omkhulu. Kulula ukubona-ke ukuthi bayakwazi, ngakolunye uhlangothi, ukuhlinzeka ngemininingwane ekuphathweni kwezifunda, izikhulu zezwekazi kanye nezwe lonke, ngakolunye uhlangothi, bayithuluzi elibalulekile ekunqumeni imibuso ye-pyrological yezakhiwo ze-pyrotechnic.

Amanzi ancibilikayo eqhwa ezintabeni kungenye yemithombo yokudla kwemifula. Isabelo sokudla kwe-glacial ekubalekeni okuphelele kwemifula eminingi evela kumaqhwa sincane kakhulu futhi lapho siseduze kweqhwa kungafinyelela ku-50% wokubaleka konyaka futhi kwesinye isikhathi kudlula leli nani. Ukuphela kokugeleza konyaka walezi imifula kwakhiwa eminye imithombo yokudla, ikakhulukazi ukuncibilika kweqhwa lesizini elilele phezu kobuso beqhwa futhi kuthambele imithambeka yalo. Lapho ibanga ukusuka eqhweni lincipha futhi izinga lokuncipha komgodi womfula lehla, isilinganiso sokudla kwe-glacial sincipha kakhulu. Noma kunjalo, ukuba khona kwamaqhwa echibini lomfula kudala izici ezihlukile zombuso wokugeleza namazinga phakathi nonyaka futhi kunomthelela omkhulu ekwehlukaneni kokugeleza konyaka waminyaka yonke kwemifula enjalo, kunciphisa kakhulu. Ukwehla komthamo wokuhlukahluka C »kokubaleka konyaka kwenzeka ikakhulukazi ngenxa yokwanda kokuhamba kweminyaka ngemvula ephansi, lapho isilinganiso se-glacier mellet runoff run. I-C „imvamisa ayidluli ku-0.10-0.15. Ngemifula ethafile yokuhlinzekwa yiqhwa kuphela, njengoba kwaziwa, i-C 0. ifinyelela ku-0.80-0.90 futhi idlula leli nani.

Ingqungquthela ye-All-Union Science Science and technical Convention on the Protection of Surface and Groundwaters from Pollution, ehlanganiswe yi-All-Union Council of Science Science and technical Socity ngokubambisana nezinkonzo ezinentshisekelo (iTallinn, 1967), ezinqumweni zayo isidingo esiphuthumayo sokwenza isethi yezinyathelo, saba nomthelela omkhulu. Okusemqoka kulezi zinyathelo kufanele kube ukubekwa kwamabhizinisi wezimboni ngokubhekisisa okuphoqelekile ukuvikela amanzi angaphansi komhlaba nangaphansi komhlaba, ukuklanywa nokwakhiwa kwezinhlelo zokuhambisa indle zezifunda kanye nezinhlelo zokuhambisa indle maqondana nezindawo zemifula, ukuthuthukiswa kwenqubo yezobuchwepheshe yezinqubo zokukhiqiza ngezinhloso zokuvikela amanzi, inhlangano yohlelo oluhlangene lokulawulwa kwekhwalithi yamanzi wombuso ezinhlanganweni zamanzi nokuqinisekisa ukuhlangana kwezinyathelo zayo yonke iminyango enentshisekelo, ukuthuthukiswa kocwaningo ukuthuthukiswa kwezisekelo zesayensi zokuvikela umhlaba kanye nomhlaba futhi, ikakhulukazi, ekusungulweni kokugxila okuvunyelwe okuphelele kwezinto ezinobungozi emzimbeni wamanzi ngezinhloso zempilo yomphakathi, ezokudoba kanye nezinye izinhlobo zokusetshenziswa kwamanzi, ukwanda kanye nokwenza ngcono umthetho wokuhlanza amanzi.

Ukujula kokusika okuwohlokayo kuvame ukukhuphuka ngokwanda kwendawo yokubanjwa. Mayelana nalokhu, ngaphansi kwezimo ezifanayo zesimo sezulu, inani lokugeleza konyaka ngenxa yokuphakelwa kwamanzi ampofu omhlaba lincane emifuleni emincane neyesikhashana kunasemifuleni ephakathi nendawo, ngokuphelele ezimeni ezinikeziwe zokuguguleka kwamanzi okudonsa ngaphansi komhlaba. Umehluko ekugelezeni kwemifula emincane nemaphakathi ngokuhambisana nokusatshalaliswa kwe-zonal yokujula kwamanzi asemhlabathini kuncipha ezindaweni ezinesimo sezulu esinomswakama kanye nokwanda kwezindawo ezomile. Uma uqhathanisa ukubuyela okujwayelekile konyaka kanye nosayizi womfula osebeni lomfula, lokhu kuyindlela eyiyo ngqo: indawo kuleli cala iyinkomba yobunzulu bokusika kokuguguleka, ukuphelela kokudonselwa kwamanzi emhlabathini ngemifula, hhayi into yezakhi zofuzo.

Ukuqongelelwa kolwazi lwe-geoecological phakathi neNkathi Ephakathi kwakuhamba kancane. Ukwazi imithetho yangempela yemvelo kuvimbela onjiniyela nabaphenyi, ungabavumeli ukuthi bazithembise bona kanye nezinye izinto ezingenakwenzeka. "- Uphawulile. Sikhuluma ngezinkulumo ngezokumbiwa phansi kanye nokufakwa kwezinsimbi, okuyinto ngekhulu le-XVI. funda edolobheni laseJáchymov (Czech Republic) I. Matesius (1504-1565). Incwadi yabokuqala babo, "Umsuka Wemithombo," eyashicilelwa ngonyaka we-1674, yabeka izisekelo zesayensi zendlela yokulinganisela amanzi yokufunda ngomkhathi - uhlelo lomgodi womfula (iShvartsev, 1996). Ngo-1735, uK. Linney (1707-1778) washicilela incwadi ethi "System of Natural", lapho kwakubekwa khona izisekelo zetekisi yanamuhla lomhlaba. Kodwa-ke, ukwanda kolwazi ngemvelo yemvelo nokusebenzisana kwabantu nayo kuba phezu kwenkathi yezinguquko zesayensi nezobuchwepheshe.

Isici esibalulekile ekwandiseni ukusebenza kahle kwezimali ezitshaliwe ngezinjongo zokuvikela amanzi, ukuqondisisa kokusetshenziswa kwazo ezimbonini ezahlukahlukene. Ukuhlaziywa kokuthuthukiswa kwengqalasizinda yolawulo lwamanzi we-intra-mboni (kusuka endaweni yokubukwa kwecebo elilungile) kuvame ukukhombisa ukuzwela okwanele kokunikezela ngamapharamitha “aphakathi” wokuhlinzekwa kwamanzi kanye nokuqaliswa kokukhishwa okungcolile ngamabhizinisi embonini. Inkinga yokuthi “kukhuphula izinga lokujikeleza kwamanzi” noma “ukukhuphula izinga lokuhlanzwa endaweni yokuthengisa” futhi akunakwenzeka ukuxazulula imboni ngayinye ngokususelwa ekuhlelweni kwendabuko. Lawa maxabiso (ngokuya ngobuningi bokushoda kwamanzi, isilinganiso sokuhlanzeka kanye nezidingo zekhwalithi yamanzi emfuleni), kusobala, kufanele ihluke kakhulu ezigabeni zamachibi omfula ngisho nakwimboni efanayo. Ukuhlolwa kwenombolo ekwabiweni kabusha kwezimali ezitshaliwe sekukhombisa ukuthi ngenxa yokusebenzisa kwabo okunengqondo ezimbonini, inani lezindleko ezinkulu ezindlekweni zokuvikela amanzi lingancishiswa futhi.

Inani lamazinga wokuphakama okwenza izinqumo zokuphathwa kwamanzi kuncike ebangeni lokuhlukahlukana kwezindawo zemvelo nezomnotho nokuqina kobudlelwano phakathi kwabo. Njengoba ithonya elikhulu kunawo wonke emingceleni yalezi zakhiwo ezinamandla likhishwa yizinto zezomnotho ezinqunywe isimo somnotho wezwe, abaphathi bezombusazwe nabo baphakeme kakhulu. Lapha, ubunzima besimo sezemvelo sisonke futhi kuyahlolwa izifunda ngazinye, kubekwa kuqala izinkinga zezemvelo futhi, ngenxa yalokhu, inqubomgomo yokulawulwa kwemvelo iyakhiwa. Kuleli zinga, amalungelo nezibopho zezinhlangano ezihlukene zokuphathwa kwemvelo zinqunywa, kanye nemigomo yokuxhaswa kwezezimali nokubonakalayo kwezinyathelo zokuvikela imvelo. Ukuhlolwa komthelela womsebenzi wezomnotho emithonjeni yezamanzi neyomhlaba kanye nezimo zezomnotho, ukuthuthukiswa kwezinhlelo zokusetshenziswa kwezinyathelo zokuvikela imithombo yamanzi ekungcoleni nasekunciphiseni kwenziwa ezingeni lesifunda. Ngokwesilinganiso semisele yemifula, imisebenzi esemqoka yokuphathwa kwemithombo yamanzi iyaxazululwa, ngokuya ngeminyaka eminingi yolwazi lwe-hydrological, isakhiwo samanje se-HCS kanye nobudlelwano babo nendawo yemvelo.

Akunandaba nendawo okukuyo, izimbangela zokungcoliswa kwamanzi nezinkinga ezihlobene nazo ziyefana ngokufanayo kulo lonke i-mdc. Lapho udala futhi unweba izindawo zokuhlala namabhizinisi wezimboni, abantu abasebenzisa imithombo yemvelo ebaluleke kakhulu - amanzi, bayakuvumela ukungcoliswa kukhipha imfucuza nemfucumfucu yezimboni emigwaqweni yamanzi eseduze, besebenzisa le ndlela njengeyona eshibhile futhi elula kakhulu. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, lo mkhuba uholele ezinkingeni (ngeshwa, hhayi kulabo bantu abangcolisa imizimba yamanzi), ekubhujisweni kwezinto eziphilayo ezihlala emanzini, zabangela ukulimala kwezolimo, zidala ingozi empilweni yomphakathi futhi lenyusa kakhulu izindleko zezimboni. Ekugcineni, abaphathi bezempilo, abalimi, abalimi bezinhlanzi nabaninimabhizinisi babonile ukulahleka okungenakubangelwe okubangelwe yilokhu futhi bacela nemithetho yabantu ukuthi inxephezele ngokulahleka okubangelwa ukwephulwa kwemithetho yemvelo. Inqubekela phambili yangempela ekwehliseni ukungcoliswa kwezidumbu zamanzi yatholakala kuphela ngemuva kokuba izifundazwe, izifunda, izikejana zemifula kanye namazwe ngamanye ethule imithetho ethathe ngokufanele zonke izintshisekelo ezihambisana nale nkinga. Uma empini yokulwa nokungcoliswa kwezidumbu zamanzi izintshisekelo zeqembu elilodwa labantu zibuswa, khona-ke impi ayiphumelelanga.